CHINA’S EDUCATION EXCHANGE DIPLOMACY IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC IN COMPARISON WITH THAT OF THE U.S. AND SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR CHINA
Main Article Content
Abstract
Education exchange has increasingly been identified as an integral overture in China and U.S. foreign policy toward the Asia-Pacific. Legitimate but soft attributes rationalize its prominence though its effects are long-term and seemingly intangible. To win the “hearts and minds” of regional people, China and the U.S. have deployed this public diplomacy tool but differently. This article discusses the criticality of government-initiated education exchange within China and U.S. national strategies and their practice in the Asia-Pacific from a comparative perspective. It asserts that education exchange is well-situated within the two giant powers’ foreign affairs management toolkit to rejuvenate and reinforce their images in the region. Chinese initiatives prove adaptable to the region, whereas the U.S. disregards regional variations. However, it does not imply that China would utilise the education exchange tool more effectively than the U.S. Insights into their practice of education exchange diplomacy suggest some implications for China.
Article Details
Keywords
Exchange Diplomacy, China and the U.S., Asia-Pacific, International Education
References
Albert, E. (2018). China’s big bet on soft power. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-big-bet-soft-power
ASEAN. (2011). Plan of action to implement the ASEAN-U.S. Enhanced partnership for enduring peace and prosperity (2011-2015). https://asean.org/asean/external-relations/united-states/
ASEAN. (2015). Plan of action to implement the ASEAN-U.S. strategic partnership (2016-2020). https://asean.org/asean/external-relations/united-states/
ASEAN Studies Centre, & ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. (2021). The State of Southeast Asia 2021 report. https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/The-State-of-SEA-2021-v2.pdf
BBC World Service. (2017). Sharp drop in world views of US, UK: Global Poll.
https://globescan.com/images/images/pressreleases/bbc2017_country_ratings/BBC2017_Country_Ratings_Poll.pdf
Carter, A. (2018). Reflections on American grand strategy in Asia. https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/reflections-american-grand-strategy-asia
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2006). International students in China.
http://www.china.org.cn/living_in_china/abc/2008-12/08/content_17989903.htm
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2010). China’s national plan for medium and long-term education reform and development (2010-2020), China MoE.
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2011). Over 260,000 international students studying in China in 2010.
http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2809/201103/115886.html
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2017). Statistics of Chinese students studying in China in 2016.
http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_fbh/moe_2069/xwfbh_2017n/xwfb_170301/170301_sjtj/201703/t20170301_297677.html
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2018). Growing number of foreign students choosing to study in China for a degree across multiple disciplines.
http://en.moe.gov.cn/News/Top_News/201804/t20180403_332258.html
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2019). Statistical report on international students in China for 2018.
http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/201904/t20190418_378692.html
Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC). (2014). Chinese Government Scholarship Programs. http://english.www.gov.cn/services/study_in_china/2014/08/23/content_281474982976468.htm
China Scholarship Council (CSC). (n.d.). The Scholarship System. http://www.cscse.edu.cn/publish/portal0/tab132/info8900.htm
Chu, Y., Kang, L., & Huang, M. (2015). How East Asians view the Rise of China. Journal of contemporary China, 24(93), 398-420.
Congressional Report Service (CRS). (2008). Comparing global Influence: China’s and U.S. Diplomacy, Foreign Aid, Trade, and Investment in the Developing World. Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division and Thomas Coipuram, Jr. Knowledge Services Group.
Cull, N. J. (2008). Public diplomacy: Taxonomies and histories. The Annals of the American academy of political and social science, 616, 31-54.
Custer, S., Russell, B., DiLorenzo, M., Cheng, M., Ghose, S., Desai, H., Sims, J., & Turner, J. (2018). Ties That Bind: Quantifying China’s public diplomacy and its “good neighbor” effect. https:www.aiddata.org/publications/ties-that-bind
Custer, S., Prakash, M., Solis, J., Knight, R., &Lin, J. (2019). Influencing the narrative: How the Chinese government mobilizes students and media to burnish its image. https://www.aiddata.org/publications/influencing-the-narrative
d’Hooghe, I. (2005). Public diplomacy in the People’s Republic of China. In J. Melissen (Ed.) The New public diplomacy: Soft Power in international relations. Palgrave Macmillan.
Dong, L., & Chapman, D. W. (2008). The Chinese Government Scholarship Program: An effective form of foreign assistance? International Review of Education, 54(2), 155-173.
Freedom House. (n.d.). https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores
Fulbright, W. J. (1987). Preface. The annals of the American academy of political and social science, 491, 10.
Gallup. (2019). China. https://news.gallup.com/poll/1627/china.aspx
ICEF Monitor. (2016). China moving to expand student recruitment in Southeast Asia.
https://monitor.icef.com/2016/12/china-moving-expand-student-recruitment-southeast-asia/
Kennedy, K. (2018). China boosts international student budget by 16% as student target nears. The PIE News.
https://thepienews.com/news/china-boosts-international-student-budget-by-16-as-student-target-nears/
Latief, R., & Lefen, L. (2018). Analysis of Chinese government scholarship for international students using analytical hierarchy process (AHP), Sustainability, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072112
Le, T. L. (2019). Vietnamese exchangers’ perceptions of the U.S. as a measure of the effectiveness of its exchange Diplomacy, 14th BISA US Foreign Policy Working Group Annual Conference, Dublin, Ireland.
Li, M. (2015). China’s “One Belt, One Road” Initiative: New Round of Opening Up? S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies Bulletin. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/CMS_Bulletin0015.pdf
McCLory, J., Brown, A., Brown, K., Chehadé, F., Crabtree, J., Duncombe, C., Kausikan, B., Koh, L., Matthews, K., Nye, J., Pamment, J., Sugumaran, S., & Wang, J. (2019). The Soft Power 30: A Global ranking of soft power 2019. Portland and USC Center on Public Diplomacy.
McGiffert, C., Alterman, J., Bliss, K., Chow, E., Cooke, J., Flanagan, S., Glaser, B., Harding, B., Kaplan, J., Kuchins, A., Levy, R., Forman, J., Mitchell, D., Moreira, S., Murphy, M., Smith, J., & Zheng, D. (2009). Chinese soft power and its implications for the United States: competition and cooperation in the developing world. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
Metzgar, E. (2017). Willing interpreters and receivers: American alumni of the Japan exchange and teaching (JET) program. Palgrave communications,3. https://doi.org/10.1057/palcomms.2017.13
Myungsik, H., & Elaine, T. (2018). Socialisation of China’s soft power: Building friendship through potential leaders. China: An International Journal, 16(1), 45-68.
Daur, N . (2019). China will now give 20,000 scholarships to Pakistani students each year.
https://nayadaur.tv/2019/02/china-will-now-give-20000-scholarships-to-pakistani-students-each-year/
Nguyen, V. C. (2014). Confucius Institutes in the Mekong Region: China’s soft power or Soft border? Issues & Studies, 50(4), 85-117.
Nye, J. (2004). Soft Power: The means to success in world politics. Perseus Books Group.
Nye, J. (2008). Public diplomacy and soft power. The annals of the American academy of political and social science, 616, 94-109.
Pew Research Center. (2019). China’s economic growth mostly welcomed in emerging markets, but neighbors wary of its influence. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/12/05/chinas-economic-growth-mostly-welcomed-in-emerging-markets-but-neighbors-wary-of-its-influence/
Ray, J. (2019). Image of U.S. Leadership Now Poorer Than China’s. https://news.gallup.com/poll/247037/image-leadership-poorer-china.aspx
Roach, E. (2018). Confucius Institutes and U.S. Exchange Programs: Public Diplomacy Through Education.
https://wenr.wes.org/2018/04/confucius-institutes-and-u-s-exchange-programs-public-diplomacy-through-education
Scott-Smith, G. (2009). Exchange programs and public diplomacy. In N.Snow and P. M. Taylor (Eds), Routledge handbook of public diplomacy. Routledge.
Shambaugh, D. (2015). China’s soft-power push: The Search for respect. Foreign affairs, 94(4), 99-107.
Snow, N. (2009). Valuing Exchange of Persons in Public Diplomacy. In N.Snow and P. M. Taylor (Eds), Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy. Routledge.
Statista Research Department. (2020). Number of foreign students sutdy in China 2018.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/430717/china-foreign-students-by-country-of-origin/
Tang, S. M., Hoang, T.H., Qian, A.S., Ong, G., & Pham, T.P.T. (2020). The State of Southeast Asia: 2020 Survey report. The ASEAN Studies Centre, ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute.
The Express Tribune. (2018). Over 1,000 Pakistani students enrolled in Chinese universities on scholarship this year. https://tribune.com.pk/story/1818424/1-1000-pakistani-students-enrolled-chinese-universities-scholarship-year/
The Jakarta Post. (2016). China seeks more students from Southeast Asian countries. https://www.thejakartapost.com/youth/2016/10/25/china-seeks-more-students-from-southeast-asian-countries.html
The White House. (2015). Fact Sheet: Advancing the Rebalance to Asia and the Pacific.
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/11/16/fact-sheet-advancing-rebalance-asia-and-pacific
UCLA Confucius Institute. (n.d.). Confucius insitute worldwide. https://www.confucius.ucla.edu/about-us/confucius-institutes-worldwide
UNESCO and UNESCO Bangkok. (2013). The International mobility of students in Asia and the Pacific.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2014). 2014 Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2017). 2017 Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2019). 2019 Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Congress. (1948). The U.S. information and education exchange act of 1948.
U.S. Congress. (1961). The mutual education and cultural exchange act of 1961.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2019). Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Department of Defense. (2019). Indo-Pacific strategy report: Preparedness, partnerships, and promoting a networked region.
U.S. Department of State Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA) (n.d.). History and mission of ECA. https://eca.state.gov/about-bureau/history-and-mission-eca
U.S. Mission to ASEAN (n.d.). Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative. https://asean.usmission.gov/yseali/yseali-about/
World Bank. (2019). GDP per capita (US$). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
ASEAN. (2011). Plan of action to implement the ASEAN-U.S. Enhanced partnership for enduring peace and prosperity (2011-2015). https://asean.org/asean/external-relations/united-states/
ASEAN. (2015). Plan of action to implement the ASEAN-U.S. strategic partnership (2016-2020). https://asean.org/asean/external-relations/united-states/
ASEAN Studies Centre, & ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. (2021). The State of Southeast Asia 2021 report. https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/The-State-of-SEA-2021-v2.pdf
BBC World Service. (2017). Sharp drop in world views of US, UK: Global Poll.
https://globescan.com/images/images/pressreleases/bbc2017_country_ratings/BBC2017_Country_Ratings_Poll.pdf
Carter, A. (2018). Reflections on American grand strategy in Asia. https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/reflections-american-grand-strategy-asia
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2006). International students in China.
http://www.china.org.cn/living_in_china/abc/2008-12/08/content_17989903.htm
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2010). China’s national plan for medium and long-term education reform and development (2010-2020), China MoE.
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2011). Over 260,000 international students studying in China in 2010.
http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2809/201103/115886.html
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2017). Statistics of Chinese students studying in China in 2016.
http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_fbh/moe_2069/xwfbh_2017n/xwfb_170301/170301_sjtj/201703/t20170301_297677.html
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2018). Growing number of foreign students choosing to study in China for a degree across multiple disciplines.
http://en.moe.gov.cn/News/Top_News/201804/t20180403_332258.html
China Ministry of Education (MoE). (2019). Statistical report on international students in China for 2018.
http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/201904/t20190418_378692.html
Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC). (2014). Chinese Government Scholarship Programs. http://english.www.gov.cn/services/study_in_china/2014/08/23/content_281474982976468.htm
China Scholarship Council (CSC). (n.d.). The Scholarship System. http://www.cscse.edu.cn/publish/portal0/tab132/info8900.htm
Chu, Y., Kang, L., & Huang, M. (2015). How East Asians view the Rise of China. Journal of contemporary China, 24(93), 398-420.
Congressional Report Service (CRS). (2008). Comparing global Influence: China’s and U.S. Diplomacy, Foreign Aid, Trade, and Investment in the Developing World. Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division and Thomas Coipuram, Jr. Knowledge Services Group.
Cull, N. J. (2008). Public diplomacy: Taxonomies and histories. The Annals of the American academy of political and social science, 616, 31-54.
Custer, S., Russell, B., DiLorenzo, M., Cheng, M., Ghose, S., Desai, H., Sims, J., & Turner, J. (2018). Ties That Bind: Quantifying China’s public diplomacy and its “good neighbor” effect. https:www.aiddata.org/publications/ties-that-bind
Custer, S., Prakash, M., Solis, J., Knight, R., &Lin, J. (2019). Influencing the narrative: How the Chinese government mobilizes students and media to burnish its image. https://www.aiddata.org/publications/influencing-the-narrative
d’Hooghe, I. (2005). Public diplomacy in the People’s Republic of China. In J. Melissen (Ed.) The New public diplomacy: Soft Power in international relations. Palgrave Macmillan.
Dong, L., & Chapman, D. W. (2008). The Chinese Government Scholarship Program: An effective form of foreign assistance? International Review of Education, 54(2), 155-173.
Freedom House. (n.d.). https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores
Fulbright, W. J. (1987). Preface. The annals of the American academy of political and social science, 491, 10.
Gallup. (2019). China. https://news.gallup.com/poll/1627/china.aspx
ICEF Monitor. (2016). China moving to expand student recruitment in Southeast Asia.
https://monitor.icef.com/2016/12/china-moving-expand-student-recruitment-southeast-asia/
Kennedy, K. (2018). China boosts international student budget by 16% as student target nears. The PIE News.
https://thepienews.com/news/china-boosts-international-student-budget-by-16-as-student-target-nears/
Latief, R., & Lefen, L. (2018). Analysis of Chinese government scholarship for international students using analytical hierarchy process (AHP), Sustainability, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072112
Le, T. L. (2019). Vietnamese exchangers’ perceptions of the U.S. as a measure of the effectiveness of its exchange Diplomacy, 14th BISA US Foreign Policy Working Group Annual Conference, Dublin, Ireland.
Li, M. (2015). China’s “One Belt, One Road” Initiative: New Round of Opening Up? S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies Bulletin. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/CMS_Bulletin0015.pdf
McCLory, J., Brown, A., Brown, K., Chehadé, F., Crabtree, J., Duncombe, C., Kausikan, B., Koh, L., Matthews, K., Nye, J., Pamment, J., Sugumaran, S., & Wang, J. (2019). The Soft Power 30: A Global ranking of soft power 2019. Portland and USC Center on Public Diplomacy.
McGiffert, C., Alterman, J., Bliss, K., Chow, E., Cooke, J., Flanagan, S., Glaser, B., Harding, B., Kaplan, J., Kuchins, A., Levy, R., Forman, J., Mitchell, D., Moreira, S., Murphy, M., Smith, J., & Zheng, D. (2009). Chinese soft power and its implications for the United States: competition and cooperation in the developing world. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
Metzgar, E. (2017). Willing interpreters and receivers: American alumni of the Japan exchange and teaching (JET) program. Palgrave communications,3. https://doi.org/10.1057/palcomms.2017.13
Myungsik, H., & Elaine, T. (2018). Socialisation of China’s soft power: Building friendship through potential leaders. China: An International Journal, 16(1), 45-68.
Daur, N . (2019). China will now give 20,000 scholarships to Pakistani students each year.
https://nayadaur.tv/2019/02/china-will-now-give-20000-scholarships-to-pakistani-students-each-year/
Nguyen, V. C. (2014). Confucius Institutes in the Mekong Region: China’s soft power or Soft border? Issues & Studies, 50(4), 85-117.
Nye, J. (2004). Soft Power: The means to success in world politics. Perseus Books Group.
Nye, J. (2008). Public diplomacy and soft power. The annals of the American academy of political and social science, 616, 94-109.
Pew Research Center. (2019). China’s economic growth mostly welcomed in emerging markets, but neighbors wary of its influence. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/12/05/chinas-economic-growth-mostly-welcomed-in-emerging-markets-but-neighbors-wary-of-its-influence/
Ray, J. (2019). Image of U.S. Leadership Now Poorer Than China’s. https://news.gallup.com/poll/247037/image-leadership-poorer-china.aspx
Roach, E. (2018). Confucius Institutes and U.S. Exchange Programs: Public Diplomacy Through Education.
https://wenr.wes.org/2018/04/confucius-institutes-and-u-s-exchange-programs-public-diplomacy-through-education
Scott-Smith, G. (2009). Exchange programs and public diplomacy. In N.Snow and P. M. Taylor (Eds), Routledge handbook of public diplomacy. Routledge.
Shambaugh, D. (2015). China’s soft-power push: The Search for respect. Foreign affairs, 94(4), 99-107.
Snow, N. (2009). Valuing Exchange of Persons in Public Diplomacy. In N.Snow and P. M. Taylor (Eds), Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy. Routledge.
Statista Research Department. (2020). Number of foreign students sutdy in China 2018.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/430717/china-foreign-students-by-country-of-origin/
Tang, S. M., Hoang, T.H., Qian, A.S., Ong, G., & Pham, T.P.T. (2020). The State of Southeast Asia: 2020 Survey report. The ASEAN Studies Centre, ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute.
The Express Tribune. (2018). Over 1,000 Pakistani students enrolled in Chinese universities on scholarship this year. https://tribune.com.pk/story/1818424/1-1000-pakistani-students-enrolled-chinese-universities-scholarship-year/
The Jakarta Post. (2016). China seeks more students from Southeast Asian countries. https://www.thejakartapost.com/youth/2016/10/25/china-seeks-more-students-from-southeast-asian-countries.html
The White House. (2015). Fact Sheet: Advancing the Rebalance to Asia and the Pacific.
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/11/16/fact-sheet-advancing-rebalance-asia-and-pacific
UCLA Confucius Institute. (n.d.). Confucius insitute worldwide. https://www.confucius.ucla.edu/about-us/confucius-institutes-worldwide
UNESCO and UNESCO Bangkok. (2013). The International mobility of students in Asia and the Pacific.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2014). 2014 Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2017). 2017 Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2019). 2019 Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Congress. (1948). The U.S. information and education exchange act of 1948.
U.S. Congress. (1961). The mutual education and cultural exchange act of 1961.
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2019). Comprehensive annual report on public diplomacy and international broadcasting.
U.S. Department of Defense. (2019). Indo-Pacific strategy report: Preparedness, partnerships, and promoting a networked region.
U.S. Department of State Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA) (n.d.). History and mission of ECA. https://eca.state.gov/about-bureau/history-and-mission-eca
U.S. Mission to ASEAN (n.d.). Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative. https://asean.usmission.gov/yseali/yseali-about/
World Bank. (2019). GDP per capita (US$). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD