A QUALITATIVE META-SYNTHESIS OF CHINESE LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING: 2010-2024
Main Article Content
Abstract
The rising global influence of China has significantly accelerated the spread and support for Chinese language education worldwide. This geopolitical shift has not only increased the number of Chinese language learners but also reshaped pedagogical approaches and research priorities in the field. This study investigates the evolving landscape of Chinese language teaching and learning through a qualitative meta-synthesis of academic articles published between 2010 and 2024. By categorizing 151 key words from the dataset of 60 academic articles, the present study identifies two key thematic trends: (1) Theoretical aspect: indexes of Chinese language features, and (2) Practical aspect: issues of Chinese instructional practices, two of which define key aspects of Chinese language teaching and learning respectively. The findings reveal how these two themes interconnect to reflect descriptive synthesis of relevant sub-themes identified from the categorization of key words and construction of research focus. The study concludes with implications for language policy, teacher training, and future research directions in Chinese teaching and learning contexts.
Keywords
Chinese language teaching, Chinese language learning, Chinese as a foreign language, meta-synthesis, classroom learning environments
Article Details
References
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Gong, Y., Lai, C., & Gao, X. (2020). The teaching and learning of Chinese as a second or foreign language: The current situation and future directions. Frontiers of Education in China, 15(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11516-020-0001-0
He, A. W. (2004). CA for SLA: Arguments from the Chinese language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 88(4), 568-582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-19-.x
He, A. W. (2006). Toward an identity theory of the development of Chinese as a heritage language. Heritage Language Journal, 4(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.46538/hlj.4.1.1
Huang, D. (2012). Linguistic motivation in teaching Chinese as a second language. In D. Huang & M. Xing (eds.), Innovations in Teaching and Learning Chinese as a Foreign Language Applied Chinese Language Studies III (pp. 26-31), Sinolingua London Ltd.
Hugerat, M. (2016). How teaching science using project-based learning strategies affects the classroom learning environment. Learning Environments Research, 19(3), 383-395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-016-9212-y
Irvine, J. T. (1989). When Talk Isn’t Cheap: Language and Political Economy. American Ethnologist, 16(2), 248–267. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.1989.16.2.02a00040
Jensen, L. A., & Allen, M. N. (1996). Meta-synthesis of qualitative findings. Qualitative Health Research, 6(4), 553-560. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973239600600407
Koth, C. W., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2008). A multilevel study of predictors of student perceptions of school climate: The effect of classroom-level factors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.96
Lachal, J., Revah-Levy, A., Orri, M., & Moro, M. R. (2017). Metasynthesis: an original method to synthesize qualitative literature in psychiatry. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00269
Lam, S. S., Cheng, M. W., & Wong, J. S.Y. (2025). Motivation of Learning Chinese as an International Language: A Review of Theories and Research Findings. International Journal of Chinese Language Teaching, 6(2), 44-62. https://doi.org/10.46451/ijclt.20250204
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Pielstick, C. D. (1998). The transforming leader: A meta-ethnographic analysis. Community College Review, 26(3), 15-34. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ580209
Rao, Z. (2006). Understanding Chinese students’ use of language learning strategies from cultural and educational perspectives. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural development, 27(6), 491-508. https://doi.org/10.2167/jmmd449.1
Sattar, R., Lawton, R., Panagioti, M., & Johnson, J. (2021). Meta-ethnography in healthcare research: a guide to using a meta-ethnographic approach for literature synthesis. BMC Health Services Research, 21, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-06049-w
Shih, S-M. (2011). The concept of the Sinophone. Publications of the Modern Language Association, 126(3), 709–718. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2011.126.3.709
Silverstein, M. (1979). Language structure and linguistic ideology. In R. Clyne, W. Hanks & C. Hofbauer (eds.), The Elements: A parasession on linguistic units and levels (pp. 193-247). Chicago Linguistic Society.
Song, M. & Sercu, L. (2025). Administrative practices to promote Chinese language education and cultural exchange at Confucius Institutes around the world: a systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 10, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1521819
Sun, Y. (2025). Power dynamics in translingual practices for Chinese as a Second Language writing education. Language Teaching, 58(1), 116-132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444824000089
Tao, H. (2005). The gap between natural speech and spoken Chinese teaching material: Discourse perspectives on Chinese pedagogy. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 40(2), 1-24. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337275196_The_Gap_Between_Natural_Speech_and_Spoken_Chinese_Teaching_Material_Discourse_Perspectives_on_Chinese_Pedagogy
Walsh, D., & Downe, S. (2005). Meta‐synthesis method for qualitative research: a literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 50(2), 204-211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03380.x
Wang, D., & Kirkpatrick, A. (2012). Code choice in the Chinese as a foreign language classroom. Multilingual Education, 2, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-5059-2-3
Wang, Q., & Du, F. (2020). Anxiety in Chinese language learning: Relationship to motivation, attitude, and achievement. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 18(52), 447–472. https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v18i52.3180
Wang, Y., & Jenkins, J. (2016). “Nativeness” and intelligibility: Impacts of intercultural experience through English as a lingua franca on Chinese speakers’ language attitudes. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 38-58. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2016-0003
Xu, B. (2024a). Technology integration into Chinese as a foreign language learning in higher education: An integrated bibliometric analysis and systematic review (2000–2024). Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688241277911
Xu, W. (2024b). Studying Chinese, studying in Chinese and studying with the Chinese: international students’ experiences and identity construction in Chinese-medium instruction (CMI) programs. Studies in Higher Education, 50(7), 1488-1500. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2383950
Yao, S., Zhang, D., & Shen, Q. (2022). Research on anxiety of learning Chinese as a second or foreign language in and outside Mainland China: A systematic review of the literature 1999–2020. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.843858
Zhang, J. (2016). Understanding Chinese as a foreign language from the perspective of second language acquisition. In J. Ruan, J. Zhang & C. B. Leung (Eds), Chinese language education in the United States (pp. 63-82). Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21308-8_4
Zhou, A. R. (2022). Envisioning Chinese as a Global Language. Global Studies, 6, 55-70. Retrieved from https://mu.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/1712
Brubaker, B. L. (2012). The normative standard of Mandarin in Taiwan: An analysis of variation in metapragmatic discourse. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED548838
Cavanagh, R. F. (2015). A unified model of student engagement in classroom learning and classroom learning environment: one measure and one underlying construct. Learning Environments Research, 18, 349-361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-015-9188-z
Chan, J. Y. H. (2024). English and Putonghua varieties in Hong Kong: language attitudes and identity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2024.2398184
Chan, J., Woore, R., Molway, L., & Mutton, T. (2022). Learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language: A scoping review. Review of Education, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3370
Chua, S. L., Wong, A. F., & Chen, D. T. V. (2011). The nature of Chinese language classroom learning environments in Singapore secondary schools. Learning Environments Research, 14, 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-011-9084-0
Coatsworth-Puspoky, R., Duggleby, W., Dahlke, S., & Hunter, K. F. (2025). Prioritizing qualitative meta-synthesis findings in a mixed methods systematic review study: A description of the method. Research Synthesis Methods, 16(1), 123-138. https://doi.org/10.1017/rsm.2024.8
Comanaru, R., & Noels, K. A. (2009). Self-determination, motivation, and the learning of Chinese as a heritage language. Canadian Modern Language Review, 66(1), 131–158. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.66.1.131
Connor, C. M., Spencer, M., Day, S. L., Giuliani, S., Ingebrand, S. W., McLean, L., & Morrison, F. J. (2014). Capturing the complexity: Content, type, and amount of instruction and quality of the classroom learning environment synergistically predict third graders’ vocabulary and reading comprehension outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(3), 762-778. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035921
Deng, Z. (2011). Confucianism, modernization and Chinese pedagogy: An introduction. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 43(5), 561-568. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2011.617837
Estabrooks, C. A., Field, P. A., & Morse, J. M. (1994). Aggregating qualitative findings: an approach to theory development. Qualitative Health Research, 4(4), 503-511. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973239400400410
Feng, X., Zhang, N., Yang, D., Lin, W., & Maulana, R. (2025). From awareness to action: Multicultural attitudes and differentiated instruction of teachers in Chinese teacher education programmes. Learning Environments Research, 28(2), 345-386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-024-09518-9
Fraser, B. J. (1994). Research on classroom and school learning climate. In D. Gabel (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning (pp. 493-541). Macmillan. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED390634
Gao, X. A., Liao, Y., & Li, Y. (2014). Empirical studies on foreign language learning and teaching in China (2008–2011): A review of selected research. Language Teaching, 47(1), 56-79. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444813000414
Goh, Y. S., & Lim, S. L. (2016). Teaching Chinese to English-speaking bilinguals. In Elaine Silver, R., Bokhorst-Heng, W. (eds), Quadrilingual Education in Singapore: Pedagogical Innovation in Language Education (pp. 291-304). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-967-7_17
Gong, Y., Hu, X., & Lai, C. (2018). Chinese as a second language teachers’ cognition in teaching intercultural communicative competence. System, 78, 224–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.09.009
Gong, Y., Lai, C., & Gao, X. (2020). The teaching and learning of Chinese as a second or foreign language: The current situation and future directions. Frontiers of Education in China, 15(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11516-020-0001-0
He, A. W. (2004). CA for SLA: Arguments from the Chinese language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 88(4), 568-582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-19-.x
He, A. W. (2006). Toward an identity theory of the development of Chinese as a heritage language. Heritage Language Journal, 4(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.46538/hlj.4.1.1
Huang, D. (2012). Linguistic motivation in teaching Chinese as a second language. In D. Huang & M. Xing (eds.), Innovations in Teaching and Learning Chinese as a Foreign Language Applied Chinese Language Studies III (pp. 26-31), Sinolingua London Ltd.
Hugerat, M. (2016). How teaching science using project-based learning strategies affects the classroom learning environment. Learning Environments Research, 19(3), 383-395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-016-9212-y
Irvine, J. T. (1989). When Talk Isn’t Cheap: Language and Political Economy. American Ethnologist, 16(2), 248–267. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.1989.16.2.02a00040
Jensen, L. A., & Allen, M. N. (1996). Meta-synthesis of qualitative findings. Qualitative Health Research, 6(4), 553-560. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973239600600407
Koth, C. W., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2008). A multilevel study of predictors of student perceptions of school climate: The effect of classroom-level factors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.96
Lachal, J., Revah-Levy, A., Orri, M., & Moro, M. R. (2017). Metasynthesis: an original method to synthesize qualitative literature in psychiatry. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00269
Lam, S. S., Cheng, M. W., & Wong, J. S.Y. (2025). Motivation of Learning Chinese as an International Language: A Review of Theories and Research Findings. International Journal of Chinese Language Teaching, 6(2), 44-62. https://doi.org/10.46451/ijclt.20250204
Lan, Y.-J., Kan, Y.-H., Sung, Y.-T., & Chang, K.-E. (2016). Oral-performance language tasks for CSL beginners in Second Life. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3), 60–79. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/44482
Pielstick, C. D. (1998). The transforming leader: A meta-ethnographic analysis. Community College Review, 26(3), 15-34. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ580209
Rao, Z. (2006). Understanding Chinese students’ use of language learning strategies from cultural and educational perspectives. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural development, 27(6), 491-508. https://doi.org/10.2167/jmmd449.1
Sattar, R., Lawton, R., Panagioti, M., & Johnson, J. (2021). Meta-ethnography in healthcare research: a guide to using a meta-ethnographic approach for literature synthesis. BMC Health Services Research, 21, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-06049-w
Shih, S-M. (2011). The concept of the Sinophone. Publications of the Modern Language Association, 126(3), 709–718. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2011.126.3.709
Silverstein, M. (1979). Language structure and linguistic ideology. In R. Clyne, W. Hanks & C. Hofbauer (eds.), The Elements: A parasession on linguistic units and levels (pp. 193-247). Chicago Linguistic Society.
Song, M. & Sercu, L. (2025). Administrative practices to promote Chinese language education and cultural exchange at Confucius Institutes around the world: a systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 10, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1521819
Sun, Y. (2025). Power dynamics in translingual practices for Chinese as a Second Language writing education. Language Teaching, 58(1), 116-132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444824000089
Tao, H. (2005). The gap between natural speech and spoken Chinese teaching material: Discourse perspectives on Chinese pedagogy. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 40(2), 1-24. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337275196_The_Gap_Between_Natural_Speech_and_Spoken_Chinese_Teaching_Material_Discourse_Perspectives_on_Chinese_Pedagogy
Walsh, D., & Downe, S. (2005). Meta‐synthesis method for qualitative research: a literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 50(2), 204-211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03380.x
Wang, D., & Kirkpatrick, A. (2012). Code choice in the Chinese as a foreign language classroom. Multilingual Education, 2, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-5059-2-3
Wang, Q., & Du, F. (2020). Anxiety in Chinese language learning: Relationship to motivation, attitude, and achievement. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 18(52), 447–472. https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v18i52.3180
Wang, Y., & Jenkins, J. (2016). “Nativeness” and intelligibility: Impacts of intercultural experience through English as a lingua franca on Chinese speakers’ language attitudes. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 38-58. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2016-0003
Xu, B. (2024a). Technology integration into Chinese as a foreign language learning in higher education: An integrated bibliometric analysis and systematic review (2000–2024). Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688241277911
Xu, W. (2024b). Studying Chinese, studying in Chinese and studying with the Chinese: international students’ experiences and identity construction in Chinese-medium instruction (CMI) programs. Studies in Higher Education, 50(7), 1488-1500. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2383950
Yao, S., Zhang, D., & Shen, Q. (2022). Research on anxiety of learning Chinese as a second or foreign language in and outside Mainland China: A systematic review of the literature 1999–2020. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.843858
Zhang, J. (2016). Understanding Chinese as a foreign language from the perspective of second language acquisition. In J. Ruan, J. Zhang & C. B. Leung (Eds), Chinese language education in the United States (pp. 63-82). Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21308-8_4
Zhou, A. R. (2022). Envisioning Chinese as a Global Language. Global Studies, 6, 55-70. Retrieved from https://mu.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/1712