WHAT IS CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS?
Main Article Content
Abstract
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has evolved over the past few decades, emerging as a dynamic and rapidly developing field within critical social theory. Given the diverse approaches and myriad of theories utilized in CDA practice, this paper aims to provide an overview of this interdisciplinary/transdisciplinary landscape. The method to conduct this study is meta-analysis, which hopefully can offer a detailed understanding of CDA’s multifaceted nature and its role in analyzing the dialectical interplay between language, power, and society where language/discourse is accorded a significant role. The paper begins with a brief review of the origins of CDA, grounding it in linguistics and social theories. It outlines the theoretical and philosophical foundations of CDA, examining key concepts such as “critical”, “power” and “ideology”. The paper surveys three main CDA approaches, examining their theoretical bases and highlighting the influence of poststructuralism on CDA work. The paper discusses some challenges that CDA has to address such as objectivity, trustworthiness, and the issue of explanation and interpretation. Additionally, it summarizes a scholarly assessment of CDA, and gives a sense of where CDA is moving forward.
Article Details
Keywords
Social constructionism, power, ideology, poststructuralism, social practice
References
Agger, B. (1992). The Discourse of domination: From the Frankfurt school to postmodernism. Northwestern University Press.
Agger, B. (2013). Critical social theories (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Alcoff, L. (1991). The Problem of speaking for others. Cultural Critique, 20, 5–32.
Althusser, L. (1971). Lenin and philosophy and other essays. Monthly Review Press.
Ahmed, T., Khan, S. K., Hussain, M. S., Altaf, F., Tariq, M. (2024). Critical discourse analysis (CDA) as a fast-emerging research paradigm: A Bibliometric study on CDA publication productivity. Migration Letters, 21(8), 385-396. https://migrationletters.com/index.php/ml/article/view/9306/6053
Bakhtin, M. (1981). The Dialogic imagination: four essays. University of Texas Press.
Barthes, R. (1967). The death of the author. https://mhnlakgilnojmhinhkckjpN/Cpbhabphi/pages/pdf/web/viewer.html?file=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.tufts.edu%2Fenglish292b%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F01%2FBarthes-The-Death-of-the-Author.pdf
Billig, M. (Ed.). (2002). Critical discourse analysis and the rhetoric of critique. In G. Weiss, & R. Wodak (Eds.), Critical discourse analysis: Theory and interdisciplinarity (pp. 35-46). Palgrave Macmillan,
Blommaert, J., & Bulcaen, C. (2000). Critical discourse analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology, 29, 447–66.
Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: A critical introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Blommaert, J. (2010). The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1977). The economics of linguistic exchanges. Social Science Information, 16, 645–68.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-258). Greenwood.
Breeze, R. (2011). Critical discourse analysis and its critics. Pragmatics, 21, 493–525.
Baudrillard, J. (1981). Simulacra and simulation. University of Michigan Press.
Bradley, J. (1993). Methodological issues and practices in qualitative research. The Library Quarterly, 63(4), 431-449.
Burr, V. (2003). Social constructionism. Routledge.
Calhoun, C. J. (1995). Critical social theory: culture, history, and the challenge of difference. Blackwell.
Charteris-Black, J. (2004). Corpus approaches to critical metaphor analysis. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230000612
Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. Sage.
Chouliaraki, L., & Fairclough, N. (1999/2004). Discourse in late modernity: Rethinking critical discourse analysis. Edinburgh University Press.
Cresswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.
Drake, A. J. (Ed.). 2009. New essays on the Frankfurt school of critical theory. Cambridge Scholars.
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2015). Identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 36–56. DOI: 10.1017/S0267190514000191
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2019). Identity. The Cambridge handbook of language learning, 451-474. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108333603.020
Derrida, J. (1976). Of grammatology. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Esposito, E., & KhosraviNik, M. (Eds.). (2024). Discourse in the digital age. Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (1985). Critical and descriptive goals in discourse analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 9, 739-763.
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Polity Press.
Fairclough, N. (1993). CDA and the marketization of public discourse: the universities. Discourse and society, 4, 133.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. Edward Arnold.
Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical discourse analysis. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as social interaction: A multidisciplinary introduction (pp. 258–284). Sage.
Fairclough, N. (1989/2001). Language and power. Pearson Education Ltd.
Fairclough, N. (2000). Language and neo-liberalism. Discourse Society, 11, 147-148. DOI: 10.1177/0957926500011002001. http://das.sagepub.com/content/11/2/147
Fairclough, N. (2009). Critical discourse analysis as a method in social scientific research. In R. Wodak, & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of critical discourse analysis (pp. 121–138). Sage.
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical discourse analysis and critical policy studies. Critical Policy Studies, 7, 177–97.
Fairclough, N. (2015). Language and power. Routledge.
Flowerdew, J. (2013). Discourse in English language education. Routledge.
Foucault, M. (1972). The archeology of knowledge and the discourse on language. Pantheon.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and other writings, 1972-79. Pantheon.
Foucault, M. (1986). What is an author? In H. Adams & L. Searle (Eds.), Critical theory since 1965 (pp. 138–148). University Press of Florida.
Foucault, M. (2002). The archaeology of knowledge. Routledge.
Foucault, M., Davidson, A. I., & Burchell, G. (2008). The birth of biopolitics: lectures at the Collège de France, 1978-1979. Springer.
Fowler, R., Hodge, B., Kress, G., & Trew, T. (1979). Language and control. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. International.
Hall, S. (1980). Encoding/Decoding. Culture, Media, Language, 128-138.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The Social interpretation of language and meaning. Edward Arnold.
Hart, C. (2014). Discourse, grammar and ideology: Functional and cognitive perspectives. Bloombury Academic.
Harding, S. (1995). Strong objectivity: A response to the new objectivity question. Synthese, 104, 331–49.
Harris, N. (2024). Foundations of social theory: a critical introduction. Routledge.
Hawkesworth, M. (2006). Contending conceptions of science and politics: Methodology and the constitution of the Political. In D. Yanow, & P. Schwartz-Shea (Eds.), Interpretation and Method: Empirical research methods and the interpretive turn (pp. 27–49). Sharpe.
Holland, J. J. Tracing the political philosophy of Critical Discourse Analysis: poststructural tactics bleeding into critical strategies. Https://www.academia.edu/6842855/Tracing_the_Political_Philosophy_of_Critical_Discourse_Analysis_Poststructural_Tactics_Bleeding_into_Critical_Strategies
Hymes, D. H. (1972). Reinventing anthropology. Pantheon.
Janks, H. (1997). Critical discourse analysis as a research tool. Discourse: Studies in the cultural politics of education, 18, 329–42.
Jorgensen, M., & Phillips, L. (2002). Discourse analysis as theory and method. Sage.
Kristeva, J. (1966). Word, Dialogue and Novel. In L. S. Roudiez (Ed.), Desire in language: A semiotic approach to literature and art (pp. 64-91). Colombia University Press.
Kristeva, J. (1986). Word, dialogue and novel. In T. Moi. (Ed.), The Kristeva reader. Blackwell.
KhosraviNik, M. (2010). Actor descriptions, action attributions, and argumentation: Towards a systematization of CDA analytical categories in the representation of social groups. Critical Discourse Studies, 7(1), 55-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405900903453948
KhosraviNik, M. (2023). Social Media and Society: Integrating the digital with the social in digital discourse. John Benjamins.
KhosraviNik, M., & Esposito, E. (Eds.). (2024). Discourse in the digital age. Routledge.
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary communication. Routledge.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: the grammar of visual design. Routledge.
Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The Structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
Kurban, C. F., & Sahin, M. (2024). The Impact of ChatGPT on higher education: Exploring the AI revolution. Ermerald Publishing.
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. Sage.
Lin, A. (2014). Critical discourse analysis in applied linguistics: A methodological review. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 34, 213-232. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000087
Lincoln, S. L., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Sage.
Lopez, K. A., & D. G. Willis. (2004). Descriptive versus interpretive phenomenology: Their contributions to nursing knowledge. Qualitative Health Research, 14, 726–35.
Luke, A. (2024). Debate and correspondence: Notes on the future of critical discourse studies. Critical Discourse Studies. DOI: 10.1080/17405900410001674551. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279804437_Debate_and_Correspondence_NOTES_ON_THE_FUTURE_OF_CRITICAL_DISCOURSE_STUDIES
Machin, D., & Meyer, A. (2012). How to do critical discourse analysis. Sage.
Marcus, G. E., & Fischer, M. M. J. (1986). Anthropology as cultural critique: An experimental moment in the human sciences. University of Chicago Press.
Martin, J. R. (2002). Blesses are the peace makers: reconciliation and evaluation. In C. Candlin (Ed.) Research and practice in professional discourse (pp. 187-273). Hongkong University Press.
Ngo, T. L. (2017). Văn chương như là quá trình dụng điển. NXB Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội. (Literature as process of allusion. Vietnam National University Press, Hanoi)
Ngo, T. L. (2020). Triết học voloshilov: một số vấn đề học thuật hậu huyền thoại Bakhtin. Nxb Thế giới. (Philosophy of Voloshinov: some post-Bakhtinian issues. The World Publishing House)
Nguyen, H. (2002). Phân tích diễn ngôn phê phán là gì? Ngôn ngữ, 2, 13-26. (What is critical discourse analysis. Journal of Linguistics, 2, 13-26)
Nguyen, H. (2021). Strategies for representing social actors: A case study. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 37(6), 1-17.
Okasha, S. (2002). Philosophy of science: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
O’Malloran, K. (2003). Critical discourse analysis and language cognition. Edinburgh University Press.
Pennycook, A. (1990). Towards a critical applied linguistics for the 1990s. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 1, 8–28.
Regmi, K. D. (2017). Critical discourse analysis: Exploring its philosophical underpinnings, method(e)s. African Review of Social Sciences Methodology, 2(1/2), 93-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/23754745.2017.135455
Rogers, R., Malancharuvil-Berkes, E., Mosley, M., Hui, D., & Joseph, G. O. (2005). Critical discourse analysis in education: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 365–416. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003365
Saussure, F. D. (2016). Course in general linguistics. Philosophical library.
Teo, P. (2000). Racism in the news: A critical discourse analysis of news reporting in two Australian newspapers. Discourse and Society, 11(1), 7-49.
van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of discourse analysis. Discourse and Society, 4(2), 249-283.
van Dijk, T. A. (1994). Critical discourse analysis. Discourse and Society, 5, 435–6.
van Dijk, T. A. (1997). Discourse as social interaction. Sage.
van Dijk, T. A. (2001). Multidisciplinary CDA: A plea for diversity. In R. Wodak, & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of discourse analysis (pp. 95-120). Sage.
van Dijk, T. A. (2001). Critical discourse analysis. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. E., Hamilton (Eds.), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis (1st Ed.) (pp. 352-371). Blackwell Publishing.
van Dijk, T. A. (2015). Critical discourse analysis. In D., Tannen, H., Hamilton, & D., Shiffrin (Eds), The handbook of discourse analysis (2nd Ed.) (pp. 465- 485). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
White, R. E., & Cooper, K. (2022). A brief history of qualitative research. In: Qualitative Research in the Post-modern Era. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85124-8_1
Widdowson, H. G. (1995). Discourse analysis: a critical view. Language and Literature, 4(3), 157-172. https://doi.org/10.1177/096394709500400301
Wodak, R. (1996). Disorders of discourse. Longman.
Wodak, R. (Ed.). (1997). Gender and discourse. Sage.
Wodak, R., & Chilton, P. (Eds.). (2005). New agenda in (Critical) discourse analysis: Theory, methodology and interdisciplinarity. John Benjamins.
Wodak, R., & Michael, M. (Eds.). (2009). Methods of critical discourse analysis. Sage.
Wodak, R. (2011). Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis. In J. Zienkowski, J. Ostman, & J. Verschueren (Eds.), Discursive pragmatics: A handbook of pragmatics highlights (pp. 50–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Wooffitt, R. (2005). Conversation analysis and discourse analysis. Sage.
Agger, B. (2013). Critical social theories (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Alcoff, L. (1991). The Problem of speaking for others. Cultural Critique, 20, 5–32.
Althusser, L. (1971). Lenin and philosophy and other essays. Monthly Review Press.
Ahmed, T., Khan, S. K., Hussain, M. S., Altaf, F., Tariq, M. (2024). Critical discourse analysis (CDA) as a fast-emerging research paradigm: A Bibliometric study on CDA publication productivity. Migration Letters, 21(8), 385-396. https://migrationletters.com/index.php/ml/article/view/9306/6053
Bakhtin, M. (1981). The Dialogic imagination: four essays. University of Texas Press.
Barthes, R. (1967). The death of the author. https://mhnlakgilnojmhinhkckjpN/Cpbhabphi/pages/pdf/web/viewer.html?file=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.tufts.edu%2Fenglish292b%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F01%2FBarthes-The-Death-of-the-Author.pdf
Billig, M. (Ed.). (2002). Critical discourse analysis and the rhetoric of critique. In G. Weiss, & R. Wodak (Eds.), Critical discourse analysis: Theory and interdisciplinarity (pp. 35-46). Palgrave Macmillan,
Blommaert, J., & Bulcaen, C. (2000). Critical discourse analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology, 29, 447–66.
Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: A critical introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Blommaert, J. (2010). The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1977). The economics of linguistic exchanges. Social Science Information, 16, 645–68.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-258). Greenwood.
Breeze, R. (2011). Critical discourse analysis and its critics. Pragmatics, 21, 493–525.
Baudrillard, J. (1981). Simulacra and simulation. University of Michigan Press.
Bradley, J. (1993). Methodological issues and practices in qualitative research. The Library Quarterly, 63(4), 431-449.
Burr, V. (2003). Social constructionism. Routledge.
Calhoun, C. J. (1995). Critical social theory: culture, history, and the challenge of difference. Blackwell.
Charteris-Black, J. (2004). Corpus approaches to critical metaphor analysis. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230000612
Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. Sage.
Chouliaraki, L., & Fairclough, N. (1999/2004). Discourse in late modernity: Rethinking critical discourse analysis. Edinburgh University Press.
Cresswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.
Drake, A. J. (Ed.). 2009. New essays on the Frankfurt school of critical theory. Cambridge Scholars.
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2015). Identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 36–56. DOI: 10.1017/S0267190514000191
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2019). Identity. The Cambridge handbook of language learning, 451-474. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108333603.020
Derrida, J. (1976). Of grammatology. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Esposito, E., & KhosraviNik, M. (Eds.). (2024). Discourse in the digital age. Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (1985). Critical and descriptive goals in discourse analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 9, 739-763.
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Polity Press.
Fairclough, N. (1993). CDA and the marketization of public discourse: the universities. Discourse and society, 4, 133.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. Edward Arnold.
Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical discourse analysis. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as social interaction: A multidisciplinary introduction (pp. 258–284). Sage.
Fairclough, N. (1989/2001). Language and power. Pearson Education Ltd.
Fairclough, N. (2000). Language and neo-liberalism. Discourse Society, 11, 147-148. DOI: 10.1177/0957926500011002001. http://das.sagepub.com/content/11/2/147
Fairclough, N. (2009). Critical discourse analysis as a method in social scientific research. In R. Wodak, & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of critical discourse analysis (pp. 121–138). Sage.
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical discourse analysis and critical policy studies. Critical Policy Studies, 7, 177–97.
Fairclough, N. (2015). Language and power. Routledge.
Flowerdew, J. (2013). Discourse in English language education. Routledge.
Foucault, M. (1972). The archeology of knowledge and the discourse on language. Pantheon.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and other writings, 1972-79. Pantheon.
Foucault, M. (1986). What is an author? In H. Adams & L. Searle (Eds.), Critical theory since 1965 (pp. 138–148). University Press of Florida.
Foucault, M. (2002). The archaeology of knowledge. Routledge.
Foucault, M., Davidson, A. I., & Burchell, G. (2008). The birth of biopolitics: lectures at the Collège de France, 1978-1979. Springer.
Fowler, R., Hodge, B., Kress, G., & Trew, T. (1979). Language and control. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. International.
Hall, S. (1980). Encoding/Decoding. Culture, Media, Language, 128-138.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The Social interpretation of language and meaning. Edward Arnold.
Hart, C. (2014). Discourse, grammar and ideology: Functional and cognitive perspectives. Bloombury Academic.
Harding, S. (1995). Strong objectivity: A response to the new objectivity question. Synthese, 104, 331–49.
Harris, N. (2024). Foundations of social theory: a critical introduction. Routledge.
Hawkesworth, M. (2006). Contending conceptions of science and politics: Methodology and the constitution of the Political. In D. Yanow, & P. Schwartz-Shea (Eds.), Interpretation and Method: Empirical research methods and the interpretive turn (pp. 27–49). Sharpe.
Holland, J. J. Tracing the political philosophy of Critical Discourse Analysis: poststructural tactics bleeding into critical strategies. Https://www.academia.edu/6842855/Tracing_the_Political_Philosophy_of_Critical_Discourse_Analysis_Poststructural_Tactics_Bleeding_into_Critical_Strategies
Hymes, D. H. (1972). Reinventing anthropology. Pantheon.
Janks, H. (1997). Critical discourse analysis as a research tool. Discourse: Studies in the cultural politics of education, 18, 329–42.
Jorgensen, M., & Phillips, L. (2002). Discourse analysis as theory and method. Sage.
Kristeva, J. (1966). Word, Dialogue and Novel. In L. S. Roudiez (Ed.), Desire in language: A semiotic approach to literature and art (pp. 64-91). Colombia University Press.
Kristeva, J. (1986). Word, dialogue and novel. In T. Moi. (Ed.), The Kristeva reader. Blackwell.
KhosraviNik, M. (2010). Actor descriptions, action attributions, and argumentation: Towards a systematization of CDA analytical categories in the representation of social groups. Critical Discourse Studies, 7(1), 55-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405900903453948
KhosraviNik, M. (2023). Social Media and Society: Integrating the digital with the social in digital discourse. John Benjamins.
KhosraviNik, M., & Esposito, E. (Eds.). (2024). Discourse in the digital age. Routledge.
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary communication. Routledge.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: the grammar of visual design. Routledge.
Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The Structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
Kurban, C. F., & Sahin, M. (2024). The Impact of ChatGPT on higher education: Exploring the AI revolution. Ermerald Publishing.
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. Sage.
Lin, A. (2014). Critical discourse analysis in applied linguistics: A methodological review. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 34, 213-232. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000087
Lincoln, S. L., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Sage.
Lopez, K. A., & D. G. Willis. (2004). Descriptive versus interpretive phenomenology: Their contributions to nursing knowledge. Qualitative Health Research, 14, 726–35.
Luke, A. (2024). Debate and correspondence: Notes on the future of critical discourse studies. Critical Discourse Studies. DOI: 10.1080/17405900410001674551. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279804437_Debate_and_Correspondence_NOTES_ON_THE_FUTURE_OF_CRITICAL_DISCOURSE_STUDIES
Machin, D., & Meyer, A. (2012). How to do critical discourse analysis. Sage.
Marcus, G. E., & Fischer, M. M. J. (1986). Anthropology as cultural critique: An experimental moment in the human sciences. University of Chicago Press.
Martin, J. R. (2002). Blesses are the peace makers: reconciliation and evaluation. In C. Candlin (Ed.) Research and practice in professional discourse (pp. 187-273). Hongkong University Press.
Ngo, T. L. (2017). Văn chương như là quá trình dụng điển. NXB Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội. (Literature as process of allusion. Vietnam National University Press, Hanoi)
Ngo, T. L. (2020). Triết học voloshilov: một số vấn đề học thuật hậu huyền thoại Bakhtin. Nxb Thế giới. (Philosophy of Voloshinov: some post-Bakhtinian issues. The World Publishing House)
Nguyen, H. (2002). Phân tích diễn ngôn phê phán là gì? Ngôn ngữ, 2, 13-26. (What is critical discourse analysis. Journal of Linguistics, 2, 13-26)
Nguyen, H. (2021). Strategies for representing social actors: A case study. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 37(6), 1-17.
Okasha, S. (2002). Philosophy of science: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
O’Malloran, K. (2003). Critical discourse analysis and language cognition. Edinburgh University Press.
Pennycook, A. (1990). Towards a critical applied linguistics for the 1990s. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 1, 8–28.
Regmi, K. D. (2017). Critical discourse analysis: Exploring its philosophical underpinnings, method(e)s. African Review of Social Sciences Methodology, 2(1/2), 93-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/23754745.2017.135455
Rogers, R., Malancharuvil-Berkes, E., Mosley, M., Hui, D., & Joseph, G. O. (2005). Critical discourse analysis in education: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 365–416. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003365
Saussure, F. D. (2016). Course in general linguistics. Philosophical library.
Teo, P. (2000). Racism in the news: A critical discourse analysis of news reporting in two Australian newspapers. Discourse and Society, 11(1), 7-49.
van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of discourse analysis. Discourse and Society, 4(2), 249-283.
van Dijk, T. A. (1994). Critical discourse analysis. Discourse and Society, 5, 435–6.
van Dijk, T. A. (1997). Discourse as social interaction. Sage.
van Dijk, T. A. (2001). Multidisciplinary CDA: A plea for diversity. In R. Wodak, & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of discourse analysis (pp. 95-120). Sage.
van Dijk, T. A. (2001). Critical discourse analysis. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. E., Hamilton (Eds.), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis (1st Ed.) (pp. 352-371). Blackwell Publishing.
van Dijk, T. A. (2015). Critical discourse analysis. In D., Tannen, H., Hamilton, & D., Shiffrin (Eds), The handbook of discourse analysis (2nd Ed.) (pp. 465- 485). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
White, R. E., & Cooper, K. (2022). A brief history of qualitative research. In: Qualitative Research in the Post-modern Era. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85124-8_1
Widdowson, H. G. (1995). Discourse analysis: a critical view. Language and Literature, 4(3), 157-172. https://doi.org/10.1177/096394709500400301
Wodak, R. (1996). Disorders of discourse. Longman.
Wodak, R. (Ed.). (1997). Gender and discourse. Sage.
Wodak, R., & Chilton, P. (Eds.). (2005). New agenda in (Critical) discourse analysis: Theory, methodology and interdisciplinarity. John Benjamins.
Wodak, R., & Michael, M. (Eds.). (2009). Methods of critical discourse analysis. Sage.
Wodak, R. (2011). Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis. In J. Zienkowski, J. Ostman, & J. Verschueren (Eds.), Discursive pragmatics: A handbook of pragmatics highlights (pp. 50–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Wooffitt, R. (2005). Conversation analysis and discourse analysis. Sage.