INDIAN STRATEGIC CHANGES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE COMPETITION WITH CHINA AFTER THE COLD WAR
Main Article Content
Abstract
Chinese noticeable development after the Reform 1978 and its recent changes in policies to Southeast Asia affect the power balance in the region and threaten the Indian influence there. Since 1991, India has changed from the “Look East Policy” to the “Act East Policy” to maintain its position and influence over Southeast Asian countries. This paper wants to analyze the role and impact of China, especially the Chinese – Indian competition towards Indian strategical changes in Southeast Asia after the Cold War; and the differences between the LEP and the AEP to show Indian changes in policies and perspective in Southeast Asia. The article argues that India policies in this region are re-actions and responses towards Chinese expansion rather than proposing a new strategy to constructively cooperate in Southeast Asia.
Article Details
Keywords
Chinese – India competition, India strategy in Southeast Asia, Look East Policy, Act East Policy
References
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Chaisse, J., Gao, H., & Lo, Ch.-F (Eds.). (2017). Paradigm shift in international economic law rule-making: TPP as a new model for trade agreements? Springer.
Chakravarty, P. R. (2018). India’s changing global priorities and the role of the Act East Policy. Indian Foreign Affairs Journal, 13(1), 51-61.
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Feng, L. (2016). China’s security strategy towards East Asia. Chinese Journal of International Politics, 9, 151-179.
Feng, Z. (2018). Is Southeast Asia really balancing against China? The Washington Quarterly, 41(3), 191-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2018.1520573
Ganguly, S., Scobell, A., & Chinyong L. J. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of Asian security studies. Routledge.
Hoàng, K. N. (chủ biên). (2017). Lý thuyết quan hệ quốc tế. NXB Thế giới.
Hồ, Q. P. (2022). Ngoại giao văn hóa của Trung Quốc đối với Đông Nam Á hiện nay. Nghiên cứu Đông Nam Á, 2, 44-50.
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Li, Ch. Y., & Yang, X. Zh. (2019). China’s cooperation with neighboring developing countries: Achievements and challenges ahead. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 5(1), 33-48.
Maung, A. M. (2007). Sino-Myanmar economic relations since 1988 (Asia Research Institute Working paper No. 86). National University of Singapore.
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Ministry of Defense. (2007). Freedom to use the seas, India’s maritime military strategy. Integrated Headquarters.
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Ministry of External Affairs. (2022, May 9). Overview of India-ASEAN-relations. Government of India. https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/ASEAN_India_Brief_May_2022.pdf
Mishra, R. (2014, December 1). From Look East to Act East: Transitions in India’s Eastward Engagement. The ASAN Forum. http://www.theasanforum.org/from-look-east-to-act-east-transitions-in-indias-eastward-engagement/
Modi, N. (2014, November 12). Remarks by the Prime Minister at 12th India-ASEAN Summit, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. Government of India. http://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/24236/Remarks_by_the_Prime_Minister_at_12th_IndiaASEAN_Summit_Nay_Pyi_Taw_Myanmar
Modi, N. (2019, November 3). ASEAN is and always will be the heart of our Act East Policy. Narendra Modi. https://www.narendramodi.in/text-of-pm-s-opening-statement-at-16th-asean-india-summit-in-bangkok-547190
Mohan, M. (2006, January 03). EAC: More an East Asian cacophony. Straits Times.
Mukherjee, R. (2019). Looking West, acting East: India’s Indo-Pacific strategy. Southeast Asian Affairs, 43-52.
Muni, S. D. (2002). China’s strategic engagement with the new ASEAN. Nanyang Technological University.
Muni, S. D. (2011). India’s ‘Look East’ Policy: The strategic dimension (ISAS Working Paper No. 121). Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/126612/ISAS_Working_Paper_121-_Email-_India%27s_%27look-east%27_policy_the_strategic_dimension_01022011145800.pdf
Muni, S. D., & Mishra, R. (Eds.). (2019). India’s eastward engagement: From antiquity to Act East Policy. SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd.
Nachiappan, K. (2021). India-ASEAN relations: Riding and transcending the Indo-Pacific wave. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies, 2(2), 2140004.
Ngọc, T. (2022, June 16). Nâng tầm quan hệ ASEAN-Ấn Độ lên đối tác chiến lược toàn diện. VietnamPlus. https://www.vietnamplus.vn/nang-tam-quan-he-aseanan-do-len-doi-tac-chien-luoc-toan-dien/799142.vnp
Ngô, M. Đ., & Ngô, M. T. (2017). Quan hệ thương mại hàng hóa Ấn Độ - ASEAN: Thực trạng và giải pháp. Nghiên cứu Ấn Độ và châu Á, 1, 1-12.
Nguyễn, H. (2020, August 26). Nền kinh tế 3.000 tỷ USD của người Hoa ở Đông Nam Á. Công an nhân dân online. https://cand.com.vn/Kinh-te-Van-hoa-The-Thao/Nen-kinh-te-3-000-ty-USD-cua-nguoi-Hoa-o-Dong-Nam-A-i578478/
Palit, A. (2017). India’s economic and strategic perceptions of China’s maritime silk road initiative. Geopolitics, 22, 292-309.
Paul, R. V., & Mark, V. K. (2001). Lý luận quan hệ quốc tế. Học viện Quan hệ quốc tế.
Press Trust of India. (2014, August 24). Time for ‘Act East Policy’ and not just ‘Look East’: Swaraj. Business Standard. http://www.business-standard.com/article/pri-stoties/time-for-act-east-policy-and-not-just-look-east-swaraj-114082400624_1.html
Pubby, M. (2020, March 10). In a first, India figures on arms exporters list. The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/in-a-first-india-figures-on-arms-exporters-list/articleshow/74557571.cms
Ram, A. N. (Ed.) (2012). Two decades of India’s Look East Policy: Partnership for peace, progress and prosperity. Manohar Publishers & Distributors.
Rana, K. S. (2015). Modi Acts East: The emerging contours of India’s foreign policy. ISIS Focus, 1-7. http://www.isis.org.my/files/IF_2015/IF4/ISIS_Focus_4_2015_1.pdf
Saw, S.-H. (Ed.). (2007). ASEAN-China economic relations. ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute.
Shambaugh, D. (2005). China engages Asia: Reshaping the regional order. International Security, 29(3), 64-99.
Singh, H. (2022, July 01). ASEAN-India relations: Potential for further growth. Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore. https://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/papers/asean-india-relations-potential-for-further-growth/
Singh, J. (1998). Against a nuclear apartheid. Foreign Affairs, 77(5), 41-52.
Singh, M. (2005, January 7). PM’s inaugural speech at Pravasi Bharatiya Divas. Former Prime Minister of India – Dr. Manmohan Singh. http://archivepmo.nic.in/drmanmohansingh/speech-details.php?nodeid=60
Sinha, S. Y. (2003, September 29). Speech by External Affairs Minister Shri Yashwant Sinha at Harvard University. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. http://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/4744/Speech_by_External_Affairs_Minister_Shri_Yashwant_Sinha_at_Harvard_University
Sridharan, E. (2017). Possible future directions in Indian Foreign Policy. International Affairs, 93(1), 51-68.
Sundararaman, S. (2018). India-ASEAN relations: Acting East in the Indo-Pacific. International Studies, 54(1-4), 62-81.
The ASEAN Secretariat. (2021, November 24). Overview of ASEAN-China dialogue relations. Association of Southeast Asian Nations. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Overview-of-ASEAN-China-Relations-24-Nov-2021.pdf
Tôn, S. T. (2018). Những điều chỉnh trong chính sách đối ngoại của Ấn Độ dưới chính quyền Modi. Nghiên cứu quốc tế, 12, 119-138.
Trivedi, S. (2010). Early Indian influence in Southeast Asia: Revitalizing partnership between India and Indonesia. India Quarterly, 66, 51-67.
Tyagi, R., Bansal, A., Kaul, V., & De, D. (2017). India-ASEAN FTA: Analysis of cooperation in transportation sector. Information Technology and Quantitative Management, 122, 759-766.
Võ, X. V. (chủ biên) (2021). Cạnh tranh chiến lược Ấn Độ - Trung Quốc ở Đông Nam Á. NXB Thế giới.
Vũ, Đ. L., & Ninh, X. T. (chủ biên) (2021). Cạnh tranh Trung - Ấn tại Đông Nam Á. NXB Chính trị quốc gia sự thật.
Vũ, T. V. D., & Bùi, T. T. H. (2021). Vấn đề biển Đông và chính sách ngoại giao xung quanh của Trung Quốc sau Đại hội XVIII. Nghiên cứu Trung Quốc, 8, 74-86.
Wan-Ping, T., & Soong, J. J. (2014). Trade relations between China and Southeast Asia: Strategy and challenge. The Chinese Economy, 47, 23-39.
World Bank. (2020). WITS - World Integrated Trade Solutions. http://wits.worldbank.org
Xi, J. P. (2013, October 25). XiJinPing zai zhoubian waijiao gongzuo zuotan hui shang fabiao zhongyao jianghua. Renminwang. http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2013/1025/c1024-23332318.html
Zhang, M., & Li, R. (2017). The impact of China’s economic restructuring on Southeast Asia: An investment perspective. International Journal of China Studies, 8, 183-197.
Association of South East Asian Nations. (2012). ASEAN-India eminent persons’ report to the leaders. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ASEAN-India-EPG-Oct.pdf
Bitounis, L., & Price, J. (2020). The struggle for power: U.S – China relations in the 21st century. The Aspen Institute.
Brautigam, D. (2010). China, Africa and the international aid architecture (Working paper No. 107). African Development Bank Group. https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/WORKING%20107%20%20PDF%20E33.pdf
Brewster, D. (2013). India’s defence strategy and the India-ASEAN relationship. In A. K. Das (Ed.), India-ASEAN defence relations (pp. 125-146). S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/14736489.2013.820987
Chaisse, J., Gao, H., & Lo, Ch.-F (Eds.). (2017). Paradigm shift in international economic law rule-making: TPP as a new model for trade agreements? Springer.
Chakravarty, P. R. (2018). India’s changing global priorities and the role of the Act East Policy. Indian Foreign Affairs Journal, 13(1), 51-61.
Chí, T. (2021, May 24). Đông Nam Á trong chiến lược của Ấn Độ. Tạp chí Cộng sản. https://www.tapchicongsan.org.vn/web/guest/tin-binh-luan/-/asset_publisher/DLIYi5AJyFzY/content/dong-nam-a-trong-chien-luoc-cua-an-do
Coedes, G. (1967). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press.
Crossette, B. (2009, December 19). The elephant in the room: The biggest pain in Asia isn’t the country you’d think. FP. https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/12/19/the-elephant-in-the-room/
Davedason, E. S., & Chandran, V. G. R. (2019). Unlocking the trade potential in China-ASEAN relations: The China-Vietnam context. Journal of Southeast Asian Economies, 36, 380-399.
Defence Minister of India (2017, October 24). RM’s Statement at 4th ASEAN Defence Ministers’ Meeting Plus (ADMM Plus). Minister of Defence, Government of India. https://www.mod.gov.in/sites/default/files/RMADMM.pdf
Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade. (2013). Statement on country-wise FDI inflows from January 2000 to January 2013. SIA Newsletter, 21(10).
Devare, S. (2006). India & Southeast Asia: Towards security convergence. ISEAS Publisher.
Elliott, M., Abdoolcarim, Z., & Elegant, S. (2005, December 12). Lee Kuan Yew reflects. TIME Asia, 166(24), 38-47. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,1137705,00.html
Feng, L. (2016). China’s security strategy towards East Asia. Chinese Journal of International Politics, 9, 151-179.
Feng, Z. (2018). Is Southeast Asia really balancing against China? The Washington Quarterly, 41(3), 191-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2018.1520573
Ganguly, S., Scobell, A., & Chinyong L. J. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of Asian security studies. Routledge.
Hoàng, K. N. (chủ biên). (2017). Lý thuyết quan hệ quốc tế. NXB Thế giới.
Hồ, Q. P. (2022). Ngoại giao văn hóa của Trung Quốc đối với Đông Nam Á hiện nay. Nghiên cứu Đông Nam Á, 2, 44-50.
Huỳnh, T. S. (2016). Biển Đông trong quan hệ Ấn Độ - ASEAN từ năm 2009 đến nay. Nghiên cứu Ấn Độ và Châu Á, 6, 9-17.
Jiadong, Z., & Qian, S. (2019). China-India relations: A premature strategic competition between the dragon and the elephant. Issues & Studies: A Social Science Quarterly on China, Taiwan and East Asian Affairs, 55(3), 1-20.
Li, Ch. Y., & Yang, X. Zh. (2019). China’s cooperation with neighboring developing countries: Achievements and challenges ahead. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 5(1), 33-48.
Maung, A. M. (2007). Sino-Myanmar economic relations since 1988 (Asia Research Institute Working paper No. 86). National University of Singapore.
Michael, P. C., Rasler, K., & Thompson, W. R. (2008). Strategic rivalries in world politics: Position, space and conflict escalation. Cambridge University Press.
Ministry of Defense. (2007). Freedom to use the seas, India’s maritime military strategy. Integrated Headquarters.
Ministry of External Affairs. (2015, July 20). IISS Fullerton lecture by Dr. S. Jaishankar, foreign secretary in Singapore. Government of India. https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/25493/iiss+fullerton+lecture+by+dr+s+jaishankar+foreign+secretary+in+singapore#contentStart
Ministry of External Affairs. (2015, December 23). Act East Policy. Government of India. https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=133837#:~:text=The%20Objective%20of%20''Act,States%20of%20North%20Eastern%20Region
Ministry of External Affairs. (2022, May 9). Overview of India-ASEAN-relations. Government of India. https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/ASEAN_India_Brief_May_2022.pdf
Mishra, R. (2014, December 1). From Look East to Act East: Transitions in India’s Eastward Engagement. The ASAN Forum. http://www.theasanforum.org/from-look-east-to-act-east-transitions-in-indias-eastward-engagement/
Modi, N. (2014, November 12). Remarks by the Prime Minister at 12th India-ASEAN Summit, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. Government of India. http://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/24236/Remarks_by_the_Prime_Minister_at_12th_IndiaASEAN_Summit_Nay_Pyi_Taw_Myanmar
Modi, N. (2019, November 3). ASEAN is and always will be the heart of our Act East Policy. Narendra Modi. https://www.narendramodi.in/text-of-pm-s-opening-statement-at-16th-asean-india-summit-in-bangkok-547190
Mohan, M. (2006, January 03). EAC: More an East Asian cacophony. Straits Times.
Mukherjee, R. (2019). Looking West, acting East: India’s Indo-Pacific strategy. Southeast Asian Affairs, 43-52.
Muni, S. D. (2002). China’s strategic engagement with the new ASEAN. Nanyang Technological University.
Muni, S. D. (2011). India’s ‘Look East’ Policy: The strategic dimension (ISAS Working Paper No. 121). Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/126612/ISAS_Working_Paper_121-_Email-_India%27s_%27look-east%27_policy_the_strategic_dimension_01022011145800.pdf
Muni, S. D., & Mishra, R. (Eds.). (2019). India’s eastward engagement: From antiquity to Act East Policy. SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd.
Nachiappan, K. (2021). India-ASEAN relations: Riding and transcending the Indo-Pacific wave. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies, 2(2), 2140004.
Ngọc, T. (2022, June 16). Nâng tầm quan hệ ASEAN-Ấn Độ lên đối tác chiến lược toàn diện. VietnamPlus. https://www.vietnamplus.vn/nang-tam-quan-he-aseanan-do-len-doi-tac-chien-luoc-toan-dien/799142.vnp
Ngô, M. Đ., & Ngô, M. T. (2017). Quan hệ thương mại hàng hóa Ấn Độ - ASEAN: Thực trạng và giải pháp. Nghiên cứu Ấn Độ và châu Á, 1, 1-12.
Nguyễn, H. (2020, August 26). Nền kinh tế 3.000 tỷ USD của người Hoa ở Đông Nam Á. Công an nhân dân online. https://cand.com.vn/Kinh-te-Van-hoa-The-Thao/Nen-kinh-te-3-000-ty-USD-cua-nguoi-Hoa-o-Dong-Nam-A-i578478/
Palit, A. (2017). India’s economic and strategic perceptions of China’s maritime silk road initiative. Geopolitics, 22, 292-309.
Paul, R. V., & Mark, V. K. (2001). Lý luận quan hệ quốc tế. Học viện Quan hệ quốc tế.
Press Trust of India. (2014, August 24). Time for ‘Act East Policy’ and not just ‘Look East’: Swaraj. Business Standard. http://www.business-standard.com/article/pri-stoties/time-for-act-east-policy-and-not-just-look-east-swaraj-114082400624_1.html
Pubby, M. (2020, March 10). In a first, India figures on arms exporters list. The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/in-a-first-india-figures-on-arms-exporters-list/articleshow/74557571.cms
Ram, A. N. (Ed.) (2012). Two decades of India’s Look East Policy: Partnership for peace, progress and prosperity. Manohar Publishers & Distributors.
Rana, K. S. (2015). Modi Acts East: The emerging contours of India’s foreign policy. ISIS Focus, 1-7. http://www.isis.org.my/files/IF_2015/IF4/ISIS_Focus_4_2015_1.pdf
Saw, S.-H. (Ed.). (2007). ASEAN-China economic relations. ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute.
Shambaugh, D. (2005). China engages Asia: Reshaping the regional order. International Security, 29(3), 64-99.
Singh, H. (2022, July 01). ASEAN-India relations: Potential for further growth. Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore. https://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/papers/asean-india-relations-potential-for-further-growth/
Singh, J. (1998). Against a nuclear apartheid. Foreign Affairs, 77(5), 41-52.
Singh, M. (2005, January 7). PM’s inaugural speech at Pravasi Bharatiya Divas. Former Prime Minister of India – Dr. Manmohan Singh. http://archivepmo.nic.in/drmanmohansingh/speech-details.php?nodeid=60
Sinha, S. Y. (2003, September 29). Speech by External Affairs Minister Shri Yashwant Sinha at Harvard University. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. http://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/4744/Speech_by_External_Affairs_Minister_Shri_Yashwant_Sinha_at_Harvard_University
Sridharan, E. (2017). Possible future directions in Indian Foreign Policy. International Affairs, 93(1), 51-68.
Sundararaman, S. (2018). India-ASEAN relations: Acting East in the Indo-Pacific. International Studies, 54(1-4), 62-81.
The ASEAN Secretariat. (2021, November 24). Overview of ASEAN-China dialogue relations. Association of Southeast Asian Nations. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Overview-of-ASEAN-China-Relations-24-Nov-2021.pdf
Tôn, S. T. (2018). Những điều chỉnh trong chính sách đối ngoại của Ấn Độ dưới chính quyền Modi. Nghiên cứu quốc tế, 12, 119-138.
Trivedi, S. (2010). Early Indian influence in Southeast Asia: Revitalizing partnership between India and Indonesia. India Quarterly, 66, 51-67.
Tyagi, R., Bansal, A., Kaul, V., & De, D. (2017). India-ASEAN FTA: Analysis of cooperation in transportation sector. Information Technology and Quantitative Management, 122, 759-766.
Võ, X. V. (chủ biên) (2021). Cạnh tranh chiến lược Ấn Độ - Trung Quốc ở Đông Nam Á. NXB Thế giới.
Vũ, Đ. L., & Ninh, X. T. (chủ biên) (2021). Cạnh tranh Trung - Ấn tại Đông Nam Á. NXB Chính trị quốc gia sự thật.
Vũ, T. V. D., & Bùi, T. T. H. (2021). Vấn đề biển Đông và chính sách ngoại giao xung quanh của Trung Quốc sau Đại hội XVIII. Nghiên cứu Trung Quốc, 8, 74-86.
Wan-Ping, T., & Soong, J. J. (2014). Trade relations between China and Southeast Asia: Strategy and challenge. The Chinese Economy, 47, 23-39.
World Bank. (2020). WITS - World Integrated Trade Solutions. http://wits.worldbank.org
Xi, J. P. (2013, October 25). XiJinPing zai zhoubian waijiao gongzuo zuotan hui shang fabiao zhongyao jianghua. Renminwang. http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2013/1025/c1024-23332318.html
Zhang, M., & Li, R. (2017). The impact of China’s economic restructuring on Southeast Asia: An investment perspective. International Journal of China Studies, 8, 183-197.