SELF-COMPASSION AND MENTAL HEALTH AMONG STUDENTS AT A UNIVERSITY IN HANOI
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study examined the association between self-compassion and mental health, including depression, anxiety, and stress, among students at a university in Hanoi, Vietnam. Using standardized measures, namely the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21), the data were collected from 378 students. The findings indicated a moderate level of self-compassion among the surveyed students, with compassionate self-responding being higher than uncompassionate self-responding. The levels of depression (M = 15.99), anxiety (M = 17.25), and stress (M = 20.25) were relatively high. Differences were observed across gender and academic performance, while no significant differences were found across academic years. Among the dimensions of self-compassion, uncompassionate self-responding showed stronger associations with mental health symptoms than compassionate self-responding. These findings suggest that how students respond to themselves when facing difficulties may be an important consideration in efforts to support and promote mental health in university settings. The study provides further evidence of the relevance of self-compassion to students’ mental health and highlights the importance of addressing self-criticism and uncompassionate responses to the self in psychological support programs.
Keywords
self-compassion, mental health, depression, anxiety, stress
Article Details
References
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Austin, J., Drossaert, C. H. C., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2023). Self-compassion as a resource of resilience. In A. Finlay-Jones, K. Bluth, & K. Neff (Eds.), Handbook of self-compassion (pp. 165-182). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22348-8_10
Baer, R. A., Lykins, E. L. B., & Peters, J. R. (2012). Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 230-238. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.674548
Bates, G. W., Elphinstone, B., & Whitehead, R. (2021). Self-compassion and emotional regulation as predictors of social anxiety. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 94(3), 426-442. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12318
Bui, H. Q., & Huynh, M. N. (2025). A study on self-compassion among university students. Ho Chi Minh City University of Education Journal of Science, 22(12), 2212-2221. https://doi.org/10.54607/hcmue.js.22.12.5219(2025)
Bock, L., Hägerbäumer, M., Riedel, E., & Rana, M. (2026). Targeted mindfulness and self-compassion improve long-term stress reduction in distance learning students: A randomized trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1678094. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678094
Bui, T. H. T., Pham, H. D., Tran, C. T., & Ha, T. H. (2020). The relationship between self-compassion and stress among university students. Journal of Psychology, 3, 57-68. https://sti.vista.gov.vn/publication/view/bf083768258b7cea52bd38b6ce16b4d3-03d6b910fe1fb35b3240e8b533ef6226-280295.html
Cleare, S., Gumley, A., Cleare, C. J., & O’Connor, R. C. (2018). An investigation of the factor structure of the self-compassion scale. Mindfulness, 9(2), 618-628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0803-1
Cowand, A., Amarsaikhan, U., Ricks, R. F., Cash, E. D., & Sephton, S. E. (2024). Self‑compassion is associated with improved well‑being and healthier cortisol profiles in undergraduate students. Mindfulness, 15, 1831-1845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-024-02383-w
Dang, T. K. A, & Trinh, P. T. (2025). Self-compassion among university students: A study at several universities in Ho Chi Minh City. Journal of Education, 25(4), 54-59. https://tcgd.tapchigiaoduc.edu.vn/index.php/tapchi/article/view/2976
de Souza, L. K., & Hutz, C. S. (2016). Self-compassion in relation to self-esteem, self-efficacy and demographical aspects. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(64), 181-188. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-43272664201604
de Souza, L. K., Policarpo, D., & Hutz, C. S. (2020). Self-compassion and symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. Trends in Psychology, 28, 85-98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-020-00018-2
Ferrari, M., Hunt, C., Harrysunker, A., Abbott, M. J., Beath, A. P., & Einstein, D. A. (2019). Self-compassion interventions and psychosocial outcomes: A meta-analysis of RCTs. Mindfulness, 10(8), 1455-1473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01134-6
Gloster, A. T., Rhoades, H. M., Novy, D., Klotsche, J., Senior, A., Kunik, M., Wilson, N., & Stanley, M. A. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 in older primary care patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 110(3), 248-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.01.023
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., & Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self-report measures. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84(3), 239-255. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608310X526511
Han, A., & Kim, T. H. (2023). Effects of self-compassion interventions on reducing depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 14, 1553-1581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02148-x
Hirano, H., Ishii, K., & Sato, M. (2025). Exploring the influence of self-esteem and self-compassion on daily psychological health: Insights from the experience sampling method. Personality and Individual Differences, 240, 113140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113140
Huang, J., Xie, Z., Shen, X., & Wang, J. L. (2024). Ostracism and depression among Chinese adolescents: The role of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and self-compassion. Current Psychology, 43, 30748-30759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06513-4
Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Steindl, S. R. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Behavior Therapy, 48(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003
Kuchar, A. L., Neff, K. D., & Mosewich, A. D. (2023). Resilience and enhancement in sport, exercise, & training (RESET): A brief self-compassion intervention with NCAA student-athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 67, 102426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102426
Larsen, J. M., Kothe, R., Helm, P. J., Bullman, M., & John-Henderson, N. A. (2024). Childhood trauma exposure, age and self-compassion as predictors of later-life symptoms of depression and anxiety in American Indian adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 153, 106860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106860
Lam, N. T., & Nguyen, T. N. T. (2024, June). The relationship between self-compassion and resilience among university students in Ho Chi Minh City. In the International Conference Proceedings of Psychology and Education in the Context of Social Change. Vietnam. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381582898_MOI_LIEN_HE_GIUA_LONG_TU_TRAC_AN_VA_KHA_NANG_PHUC_HOI_O_SINH_VIEN_TAI_THANH_PHO_HO_CHI_MINH
Lee, J., Jeong, H. J., & Kim, S. (2021). Stress, anxiety, and depression among undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic and their use of mental health services. Innovative Higher Education, 46, 519-538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-021-09552-y
Le, T. H., & Dao, T. T. D. (2023, April). The influence of self-compassion on students’ mental health. In Proceedings of the 1st Happy Schools International Symposium. Vietnam. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369890862_ANH_HUONG_CUA_LONG_TRAC_AN_VOI_BAN_THAN_DEN_SUC_KHOE_TAM_THAN_CUA_SINH_VIEN
Limone, P., & Toto, G. A. (2022). Factors that predispose undergraduates to mental issues: A cumulative literature review for future research perspectives. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, Article 831349. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.831349
Lipson, S. K., Zhou, S., Abelson, S., Heinze, J., Jirsa, M., Morigney, J., Patterson, A., Singh, M., & Eisenberg, D. (2022). Trends in college student mental health and help-seeking by race/ethnicity: Findings from the national Healthy Minds Study, 2013-2021. Journal of Affective Disorders, 306, 138-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.038
Lovibond, S. H. & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety & Stress Scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation. https://maic.qld.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/DASS-21.pdf
López, A., Sanderman, R., & Schroevers, M. J. (2018). A close examination of the relationship between self-compassion and depressive symptoms. Mindfulness, 9, 1470-1478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0891-6
Minh, L. D., Ho, D. V., & Ho, T. T. Q. (2024). Perceived stress and internalizing symptoms among university students: Self-compassion as a moderator. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 17(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.32457/ejep.v17i2.2738
Mey, L. K., Wenzel, M., Morello, K., Tüscher, O., Rowland, Z., & Kubiak, T. (2023). Be kind to yourself: The implications of momentary self-compassion for affective dynamics and well-being in daily life. Mindfulness, 14, 622-636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-02050-y
Nguyen, T. B. T., Nguyen, T. T., & Le, K. P. (2020). Reality of stress, anxiety and depression among final-year pharmacy students in Dongnai. UED Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Education, 10(2), 32-37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350192768_REALITY_OF_STRESS_ANXIETY_AND_DEPRESSION_AMONG_FINAL-YEAR_PHARMACY_STUDENTS_IN_DONGNAI
Neff, K. D. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
Neff, K. D., Tóth-Király, I., Yarnell, L. M., Arimitsu, K., Castilho, P., Ghorbani, N., Guo, H. X., Hirsch, J. K., Hupfeld, J., Hutz, C. S., Kotsou, I., Lee, W. K., Montero-Marin, J., Sirois, F. M., de Souza, L. K., Svendsen, J. L., Wilkinson, R. B., & Mantzios, M. (2019). Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in 20 diverse samples: Support for use of a total score and six subscale scores. Psychological Assessment, 31(1), 27-45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000629
Neff, K. D., Tóth-Király, I., Knox, M. C., Kuchar, A., & Davidson, O. (2021). The development and validation of the state self-compassion scale (long- and short-form). Mindfulness, 12(1), 121-140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01505-4
Neff, K. D. (2023). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74, 193-218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047
Nguyen, T. T., Dao, T. D. L., Ta, N. A., Nguyen, T. P., Nguyen, D. G., Nguyen, X. L., Dao, T. C. N., & Khuong, Q. L. (2022). Severe symptoms of mental disorders among students majoring in foreign languages in Vietnam: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, Article 855607. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.855607
Seehuus, M., Burt, K. B., & Moeller, R. W. (2025). College student mental health is stable across college career, but declining over time. Journal of Adolescence, 97(7), 1882-1894. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.70010
Shenaar-Golan, V., Gur, A., & Yatzkar, U. (2022). Emotion regulation and subjective well-being among parents of children with behavioral and emotional problems: The role of self-compassion. Current Psychology, 42, 20995-21006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03228-2
Stapleton, P. B., Richardsom, K., & Kalla, M. (2018). How aspects of self-compassion contribute to wellbeing and the effect of age. International Journal of Healing and Caring, 18(3), 1-12. https://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Stapleton2018.pdf
Slota, M., Healy, H., Hagen, B., Brasher, P., Fay, L., & Crowell, N. (2025). Impact of a mindfulness and self-care intervention on stress, self-compassion, and attentiveness in university healthcare students and faculty. Journal of American College Health, 73(8), 3021-3030. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2024.2360423
Austin, J., Drossaert, C. H. C., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2023). Self-compassion as a resource of resilience. In A. Finlay-Jones, K. Bluth, & K. Neff (Eds.), Handbook of self-compassion (pp. 165-182). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22348-8_10
Baer, R. A., Lykins, E. L. B., & Peters, J. R. (2012). Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 230-238. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.674548
Bates, G. W., Elphinstone, B., & Whitehead, R. (2021). Self-compassion and emotional regulation as predictors of social anxiety. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 94(3), 426-442. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12318
Bui, H. Q., & Huynh, M. N. (2025). A study on self-compassion among university students. Ho Chi Minh City University of Education Journal of Science, 22(12), 2212-2221. https://doi.org/10.54607/hcmue.js.22.12.5219(2025)
Bock, L., Hägerbäumer, M., Riedel, E., & Rana, M. (2026). Targeted mindfulness and self-compassion improve long-term stress reduction in distance learning students: A randomized trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1678094. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678094
Bui, T. H. T., Pham, H. D., Tran, C. T., & Ha, T. H. (2020). The relationship between self-compassion and stress among university students. Journal of Psychology, 3, 57-68. https://sti.vista.gov.vn/publication/view/bf083768258b7cea52bd38b6ce16b4d3-03d6b910fe1fb35b3240e8b533ef6226-280295.html
Cleare, S., Gumley, A., Cleare, C. J., & O’Connor, R. C. (2018). An investigation of the factor structure of the self-compassion scale. Mindfulness, 9(2), 618-628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0803-1
Cowand, A., Amarsaikhan, U., Ricks, R. F., Cash, E. D., & Sephton, S. E. (2024). Self‑compassion is associated with improved well‑being and healthier cortisol profiles in undergraduate students. Mindfulness, 15, 1831-1845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-024-02383-w
Dang, T. K. A, & Trinh, P. T. (2025). Self-compassion among university students: A study at several universities in Ho Chi Minh City. Journal of Education, 25(4), 54-59. https://tcgd.tapchigiaoduc.edu.vn/index.php/tapchi/article/view/2976
de Souza, L. K., & Hutz, C. S. (2016). Self-compassion in relation to self-esteem, self-efficacy and demographical aspects. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(64), 181-188. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-43272664201604
de Souza, L. K., Policarpo, D., & Hutz, C. S. (2020). Self-compassion and symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. Trends in Psychology, 28, 85-98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-020-00018-2
Ferrari, M., Hunt, C., Harrysunker, A., Abbott, M. J., Beath, A. P., & Einstein, D. A. (2019). Self-compassion interventions and psychosocial outcomes: A meta-analysis of RCTs. Mindfulness, 10(8), 1455-1473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01134-6
Gloster, A. T., Rhoades, H. M., Novy, D., Klotsche, J., Senior, A., Kunik, M., Wilson, N., & Stanley, M. A. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 in older primary care patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 110(3), 248-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.01.023
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., & Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self-report measures. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84(3), 239-255. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608310X526511
Han, A., & Kim, T. H. (2023). Effects of self-compassion interventions on reducing depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 14, 1553-1581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02148-x
Hirano, H., Ishii, K., & Sato, M. (2025). Exploring the influence of self-esteem and self-compassion on daily psychological health: Insights from the experience sampling method. Personality and Individual Differences, 240, 113140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113140
Huang, J., Xie, Z., Shen, X., & Wang, J. L. (2024). Ostracism and depression among Chinese adolescents: The role of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and self-compassion. Current Psychology, 43, 30748-30759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06513-4
Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Steindl, S. R. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Behavior Therapy, 48(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003
Kuchar, A. L., Neff, K. D., & Mosewich, A. D. (2023). Resilience and enhancement in sport, exercise, & training (RESET): A brief self-compassion intervention with NCAA student-athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 67, 102426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102426
Larsen, J. M., Kothe, R., Helm, P. J., Bullman, M., & John-Henderson, N. A. (2024). Childhood trauma exposure, age and self-compassion as predictors of later-life symptoms of depression and anxiety in American Indian adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 153, 106860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106860
Lam, N. T., & Nguyen, T. N. T. (2024, June). The relationship between self-compassion and resilience among university students in Ho Chi Minh City. In the International Conference Proceedings of Psychology and Education in the Context of Social Change. Vietnam. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381582898_MOI_LIEN_HE_GIUA_LONG_TU_TRAC_AN_VA_KHA_NANG_PHUC_HOI_O_SINH_VIEN_TAI_THANH_PHO_HO_CHI_MINH
Lee, J., Jeong, H. J., & Kim, S. (2021). Stress, anxiety, and depression among undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic and their use of mental health services. Innovative Higher Education, 46, 519-538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-021-09552-y
Le, T. H., & Dao, T. T. D. (2023, April). The influence of self-compassion on students’ mental health. In Proceedings of the 1st Happy Schools International Symposium. Vietnam. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369890862_ANH_HUONG_CUA_LONG_TRAC_AN_VOI_BAN_THAN_DEN_SUC_KHOE_TAM_THAN_CUA_SINH_VIEN
Limone, P., & Toto, G. A. (2022). Factors that predispose undergraduates to mental issues: A cumulative literature review for future research perspectives. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, Article 831349. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.831349
Lipson, S. K., Zhou, S., Abelson, S., Heinze, J., Jirsa, M., Morigney, J., Patterson, A., Singh, M., & Eisenberg, D. (2022). Trends in college student mental health and help-seeking by race/ethnicity: Findings from the national Healthy Minds Study, 2013-2021. Journal of Affective Disorders, 306, 138-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.038
Lovibond, S. H. & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety & Stress Scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation. https://maic.qld.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/DASS-21.pdf
López, A., Sanderman, R., & Schroevers, M. J. (2018). A close examination of the relationship between self-compassion and depressive symptoms. Mindfulness, 9, 1470-1478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0891-6
Minh, L. D., Ho, D. V., & Ho, T. T. Q. (2024). Perceived stress and internalizing symptoms among university students: Self-compassion as a moderator. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 17(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.32457/ejep.v17i2.2738
Mey, L. K., Wenzel, M., Morello, K., Tüscher, O., Rowland, Z., & Kubiak, T. (2023). Be kind to yourself: The implications of momentary self-compassion for affective dynamics and well-being in daily life. Mindfulness, 14, 622-636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-02050-y
Nguyen, T. B. T., Nguyen, T. T., & Le, K. P. (2020). Reality of stress, anxiety and depression among final-year pharmacy students in Dongnai. UED Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Education, 10(2), 32-37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350192768_REALITY_OF_STRESS_ANXIETY_AND_DEPRESSION_AMONG_FINAL-YEAR_PHARMACY_STUDENTS_IN_DONGNAI
Neff, K. D. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
Neff, K. D., Tóth-Király, I., Yarnell, L. M., Arimitsu, K., Castilho, P., Ghorbani, N., Guo, H. X., Hirsch, J. K., Hupfeld, J., Hutz, C. S., Kotsou, I., Lee, W. K., Montero-Marin, J., Sirois, F. M., de Souza, L. K., Svendsen, J. L., Wilkinson, R. B., & Mantzios, M. (2019). Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in 20 diverse samples: Support for use of a total score and six subscale scores. Psychological Assessment, 31(1), 27-45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000629
Neff, K. D., Tóth-Király, I., Knox, M. C., Kuchar, A., & Davidson, O. (2021). The development and validation of the state self-compassion scale (long- and short-form). Mindfulness, 12(1), 121-140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01505-4
Neff, K. D. (2023). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74, 193-218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047
Nguyen, T. T., Dao, T. D. L., Ta, N. A., Nguyen, T. P., Nguyen, D. G., Nguyen, X. L., Dao, T. C. N., & Khuong, Q. L. (2022). Severe symptoms of mental disorders among students majoring in foreign languages in Vietnam: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, Article 855607. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.855607
Seehuus, M., Burt, K. B., & Moeller, R. W. (2025). College student mental health is stable across college career, but declining over time. Journal of Adolescence, 97(7), 1882-1894. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.70010
Shenaar-Golan, V., Gur, A., & Yatzkar, U. (2022). Emotion regulation and subjective well-being among parents of children with behavioral and emotional problems: The role of self-compassion. Current Psychology, 42, 20995-21006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03228-2
Stapleton, P. B., Richardsom, K., & Kalla, M. (2018). How aspects of self-compassion contribute to wellbeing and the effect of age. International Journal of Healing and Caring, 18(3), 1-12. https://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Stapleton2018.pdf
Slota, M., Healy, H., Hagen, B., Brasher, P., Fay, L., & Crowell, N. (2025). Impact of a mindfulness and self-care intervention on stress, self-compassion, and attentiveness in university healthcare students and faculty. Journal of American College Health, 73(8), 3021-3030. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2024.2360423