A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF STUDENTS’ EMOTIONAL ENGAGEMENT IN TASK-BASED EFL READING LESSONS
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study investigates how English as a Foreign Language (EFL) university students’ emotional engagement develops over time across task-based reading lessons. Adopting a short-term longitudinal mixed-methods design, the data were collected from 66 Vietnamese EFL students over five task-based reading lessons within half a semester. The quantitative data were collected via repeated questionnaires administered after each reading task, while the qualitative data were obtained from follow-up interviews with ten selected students. The quantitative results revealed a significant change in emotional engagement across tasks, with engagement increasing after the initial task, peaking midway through the sequence, and declining slightly in the final task. The qualitative findings further showed that students’ emotional engagement was characterized by evolving patterns of enjoyment, enthusiasm, curiosity, and limited boredom, which were closely related to task design, topic relevance, interaction, and novelty. The findings indicate that emotional engagement in task-based reading lessons is dynamic and task-sensitive rather than stable over time. The study highlights the importance of sequencing and designing reading tasks that sustain positive emotional engagement throughout a task sequence in EFL classrooms.
Keywords
emotional engagement, task-based language teaching, reading skill
Article Details
References
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Alzahrani, F. (2023). Is it true they negatively engage? Mixed method research of student engagement in EFL online classrooms. Journal of Language and Education, 9(1), 41-58. https://doi.org/10.17323/jle.2023.13736
Alzahrani, I. H. (2025). The relationship between students’ L2 engagement and learning success. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 16(1), 266–273. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1601.27
Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., Kim, D., & Reschly, A. L. (2006). Measuring cognitive and psychological engagement: Validation of the student engagement instrument. Journal of School Psychology, 44(5), 427–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.002
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Dao, P. (2021). Effects of task goal orientation on learner engagement in task performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 59(3), 315–334. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2018-0188
Dao, P., & McDonough, K. (2018). Effect of proficiency on Vietnamese EFL learners’ engagement in peer interaction. International Journal of Educational Research, 88, 60-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2018.01.008
Dao, P., & Sato, M. (2021). Exploring fluctuations in the relationship between learners’ positive emotional engagement and their interactional behaviours. Language Teaching Research, 25(6), 972–994. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211044238
Dao, P., Nguyen, M. X. N. C., & Iwashita, N. (2021). Teachers’ perceptions of learner engagement in L2 classroom task-based interaction. The Language Learning Journal, 49(6), 711–724. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2019.1666908
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.
Engels, M. C., Spilt, J., Denies, K., & Verschueren, K. (2021). The role of affective teacher-student relationships in adolescents’ school engagement and achievement trajectories. Learning and Instruction, 75, 101485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101485
Fredricks, J. A., & McColskey, W. (2012). The measurement of student engagement: A comparative analysis of various methods and student self-report instruments. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 763–782). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_37
Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. Cambridge University Press.
Gunuc, S., & Kuzu, A. (2015). Student engagement scale: Development, reliability and validity. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 40(4), 587–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.938019
Guo, Z., & Fryer, L. K. (2025). What really elicits learners’ situational interest in learning activities: A scoping review of six most commonly researched types of situational interest sources in educational settings. Current Psychology, 44(1), 587–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-07176-x
Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2019). Learner engagement in blended learning environments: A conceptual framework. Online Learning, 23(2), 145-178. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i2.1481
Hasanov, Z., Antoniou, P., Suleymanov, E., & Garayev, V. (2021). The impact of behavioural, cognitive and emotional dimensions of student engagement on student learning: The case of Azerbaijani higher education institutions. International Journal of Knowledge and Learning, 14(1), 10-38. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJKL.2021.115027
Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4
Hiromori, T. (2021). Anatomizing students’ task engagement in pair work in the language classroom. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 3(1), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.52598/jpll/3/1/5
Hiver, P., Al-Hoorie, A. H., Vitta, J. P., & Wu, J. (2024). Engagement in language learning: A systematic review of 20 years of research methods and definitions. Language Teaching Research, 28(1), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211001289
Hiver, P., Dao, P., & Yamazaki, J. S. (2025). L2 task engagement: A research agenda. Language Teaching. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444825101043
Hodge, B., Wright, B., & Bennett, P. (2018). The role of grit in determining engagement and academic outcomes for university students. Research in Higher Education, 59(4), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9474-y
Li, H., Gan, Z., Leung, S. O., & An, Z. (2022). The impact of reading strategy instruction on reading comprehension, strategy use, motivation, and self-efficacy in Chinese university EFL students. SAGE Open, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221086659
Li, J. J. (2024). Exploring the relationship between learner engagement and language achievement in blended learning context. International Journal of Learning and Development, 14(4), 30-47. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v14i4.22245
Liu, S., Liu, S., Liu, Z., Peng, X., & Yang, Z. (2022). Automated detection of emotional and cognitive engagement in MOOC discussions to predict learning achievement. Computers & Education, 181, 104461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104461
Liu, Y., Ma, S., & Chen, Y. (2024). The impacts of learning motivation, emotional engagement and psychological capital on academic performance in a blended learning university course. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1357936. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1357936
Long, M. H. (2015). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. Wiley-Blackwell.
Lutz, S. L., Guthrie, J. T., & Davis, M. H. (2006). Scaffolding for engagement in elementary school reading instruction. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.100.1.3-20
Mercer, S. (2019). Language learner engagement: Setting the scene. In X. Gao (Ed.), Second handbook of English language teaching (pp. 643-660). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02899-2_40
Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A., Bielak, J., & Wiertelak, W. (2025). Unveiling the dynamics of learner engagement: An idiodynamic investigation of L2 speaking tasks. Applied Linguistics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amaf071
Nguyen, T. G. L., & Tran, Q. T. (2025). Insights into English as a foreign language students’ engagement in English medium instruction classes. VMOST Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 67(3), 61-68. https://doi.org/10.31276/VMOSTJOSSH.2025.0004
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667336
Oga-Baldwin, W. L. Q. (2019). Acting, thinking, feeling, making, collaborating: The engagement process in foreign language learning. System, 86, 102128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102128
Oga-Baldwin, W. L. Q., & Fryer, L. K. (2021). Engagement growth in language learning classrooms: A latent growth analysis of engagement in Japanese elementary schools. In P. Hiver, A. H. Al-Hoorie, & S. Mercer (Eds.), Student engagement in the language classroom (pp. 224–240). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.22730722.17
Palmer, D. H. (2009). Student interest generated during an inquiry skills lesson. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(2), 147–165. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20263
Pham, T. T., Nguyen, L. A. D., Dang, H. M., & Le, T. T. P. (2024). Exploring tertiary Vietnamese EFL students’ engagement in vocabulary learning through the use of an AI tool. Proceedings of the AsiaCALL International Conference, 4, 129–149. https://doi.org/10.54855/paic.23410
Philp, J., & Duchesne, S. (2016). Exploring engagement in tasks in the language classroom. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 50–72. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190515000094
Reeve, J. (2013). How students create motivationally supportive learning environments for themselves: The concept of agentic engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 579–595. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032690
Reeve, J., & Tseng, C. M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect of students’ engagement during learning activities. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002
Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. E. (2022). Interest: A unique affective and cognitive motivational variable that develops. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (Vol. 9, pp. 179-239). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2021.12.004
Sampson, R. J., & Yoshida, R. (2021). L2 feelings through interaction in a Japanese-English online chat exchange. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 15(2), 131-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2019.1710514
Skinner, E. A., Kindermann, T. A., & Furrer, C. J. (2009). A motivational perspective on engagement and disaffection: Conceptualization and assessment of children's behavioral and emotional participation in academic activities in the classroom. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(3), 493-525. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408323233
Skinner, E. A., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012840
Sulis, G. (2022). Engagement in the foreign language classroom: Micro and macro perspectives. System, 110, 102902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102902
Svalberg, A. M. L. (2009). Engagement with language: Interrogating a construct. Language Awareness, 18(3–4), 242–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658410903197264
Vo, H., Hoang, T. T. H., & Hu, G. (2024). Developmental trajectories of second language learner classroom engagement: Do students’ task value beliefs and teacher emotional support matter? System, 123, 103325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103325
Willis, J., & Willis, D. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford University Press.
Yulia, M. F., Sulistyo, G. H., & Cahyono, B. Y. (2020). Affective engagement in academic reading: What EFL student teachers reveal. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 9(3), 791-798. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v9i3.20635
Zare, J., & Derakhshan, A. (2025). Task engagement in second language acquisition: A questionnaire development and validation study. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 46(9), 2761-2777. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2024.2306166
Zhou, S. A., Hiver, P., & Zheng, Y. (2023). Modeling intra- and inter-individual changes in L2 classroom engagement. Applied Linguistics, 44(6), 1047–1076. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amac065
Alzahrani, F. (2023). Is it true they negatively engage? Mixed method research of student engagement in EFL online classrooms. Journal of Language and Education, 9(1), 41-58. https://doi.org/10.17323/jle.2023.13736
Alzahrani, I. H. (2025). The relationship between students’ L2 engagement and learning success. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 16(1), 266–273. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1601.27
Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., Kim, D., & Reschly, A. L. (2006). Measuring cognitive and psychological engagement: Validation of the student engagement instrument. Journal of School Psychology, 44(5), 427–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.002
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Dao, P. (2021). Effects of task goal orientation on learner engagement in task performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 59(3), 315–334. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2018-0188
Dao, P., & McDonough, K. (2018). Effect of proficiency on Vietnamese EFL learners’ engagement in peer interaction. International Journal of Educational Research, 88, 60-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2018.01.008
Dao, P., & Sato, M. (2021). Exploring fluctuations in the relationship between learners’ positive emotional engagement and their interactional behaviours. Language Teaching Research, 25(6), 972–994. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211044238
Dao, P., Nguyen, M. X. N. C., & Iwashita, N. (2021). Teachers’ perceptions of learner engagement in L2 classroom task-based interaction. The Language Learning Journal, 49(6), 711–724. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2019.1666908
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.
Engels, M. C., Spilt, J., Denies, K., & Verschueren, K. (2021). The role of affective teacher-student relationships in adolescents’ school engagement and achievement trajectories. Learning and Instruction, 75, 101485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101485
Fredricks, J. A., & McColskey, W. (2012). The measurement of student engagement: A comparative analysis of various methods and student self-report instruments. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 763–782). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_37
Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. Cambridge University Press.
Gunuc, S., & Kuzu, A. (2015). Student engagement scale: Development, reliability and validity. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 40(4), 587–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.938019
Guo, Z., & Fryer, L. K. (2025). What really elicits learners’ situational interest in learning activities: A scoping review of six most commonly researched types of situational interest sources in educational settings. Current Psychology, 44(1), 587–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-07176-x
Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2019). Learner engagement in blended learning environments: A conceptual framework. Online Learning, 23(2), 145-178. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i2.1481
Hasanov, Z., Antoniou, P., Suleymanov, E., & Garayev, V. (2021). The impact of behavioural, cognitive and emotional dimensions of student engagement on student learning: The case of Azerbaijani higher education institutions. International Journal of Knowledge and Learning, 14(1), 10-38. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJKL.2021.115027
Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4
Hiromori, T. (2021). Anatomizing students’ task engagement in pair work in the language classroom. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 3(1), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.52598/jpll/3/1/5
Hiver, P., Al-Hoorie, A. H., Vitta, J. P., & Wu, J. (2024). Engagement in language learning: A systematic review of 20 years of research methods and definitions. Language Teaching Research, 28(1), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211001289
Hiver, P., Dao, P., & Yamazaki, J. S. (2025). L2 task engagement: A research agenda. Language Teaching. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444825101043
Hodge, B., Wright, B., & Bennett, P. (2018). The role of grit in determining engagement and academic outcomes for university students. Research in Higher Education, 59(4), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9474-y
Li, H., Gan, Z., Leung, S. O., & An, Z. (2022). The impact of reading strategy instruction on reading comprehension, strategy use, motivation, and self-efficacy in Chinese university EFL students. SAGE Open, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221086659
Li, J. J. (2024). Exploring the relationship between learner engagement and language achievement in blended learning context. International Journal of Learning and Development, 14(4), 30-47. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v14i4.22245
Liu, S., Liu, S., Liu, Z., Peng, X., & Yang, Z. (2022). Automated detection of emotional and cognitive engagement in MOOC discussions to predict learning achievement. Computers & Education, 181, 104461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104461
Liu, Y., Ma, S., & Chen, Y. (2024). The impacts of learning motivation, emotional engagement and psychological capital on academic performance in a blended learning university course. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1357936. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1357936
Long, M. H. (2015). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. Wiley-Blackwell.
Lutz, S. L., Guthrie, J. T., & Davis, M. H. (2006). Scaffolding for engagement in elementary school reading instruction. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.100.1.3-20
Mercer, S. (2019). Language learner engagement: Setting the scene. In X. Gao (Ed.), Second handbook of English language teaching (pp. 643-660). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02899-2_40
Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A., Bielak, J., & Wiertelak, W. (2025). Unveiling the dynamics of learner engagement: An idiodynamic investigation of L2 speaking tasks. Applied Linguistics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amaf071
Nguyen, T. G. L., & Tran, Q. T. (2025). Insights into English as a foreign language students’ engagement in English medium instruction classes. VMOST Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 67(3), 61-68. https://doi.org/10.31276/VMOSTJOSSH.2025.0004
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667336
Oga-Baldwin, W. L. Q. (2019). Acting, thinking, feeling, making, collaborating: The engagement process in foreign language learning. System, 86, 102128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102128
Oga-Baldwin, W. L. Q., & Fryer, L. K. (2021). Engagement growth in language learning classrooms: A latent growth analysis of engagement in Japanese elementary schools. In P. Hiver, A. H. Al-Hoorie, & S. Mercer (Eds.), Student engagement in the language classroom (pp. 224–240). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.22730722.17
Palmer, D. H. (2009). Student interest generated during an inquiry skills lesson. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(2), 147–165. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20263
Pham, T. T., Nguyen, L. A. D., Dang, H. M., & Le, T. T. P. (2024). Exploring tertiary Vietnamese EFL students’ engagement in vocabulary learning through the use of an AI tool. Proceedings of the AsiaCALL International Conference, 4, 129–149. https://doi.org/10.54855/paic.23410
Philp, J., & Duchesne, S. (2016). Exploring engagement in tasks in the language classroom. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 50–72. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190515000094
Reeve, J. (2013). How students create motivationally supportive learning environments for themselves: The concept of agentic engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 579–595. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032690
Reeve, J., & Tseng, C. M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect of students’ engagement during learning activities. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002
Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. E. (2022). Interest: A unique affective and cognitive motivational variable that develops. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (Vol. 9, pp. 179-239). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2021.12.004
Sampson, R. J., & Yoshida, R. (2021). L2 feelings through interaction in a Japanese-English online chat exchange. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 15(2), 131-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2019.1710514
Skinner, E. A., Kindermann, T. A., & Furrer, C. J. (2009). A motivational perspective on engagement and disaffection: Conceptualization and assessment of children's behavioral and emotional participation in academic activities in the classroom. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(3), 493-525. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408323233
Skinner, E. A., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012840
Sulis, G. (2022). Engagement in the foreign language classroom: Micro and macro perspectives. System, 110, 102902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102902
Svalberg, A. M. L. (2009). Engagement with language: Interrogating a construct. Language Awareness, 18(3–4), 242–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658410903197264
Vo, H., Hoang, T. T. H., & Hu, G. (2024). Developmental trajectories of second language learner classroom engagement: Do students’ task value beliefs and teacher emotional support matter? System, 123, 103325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103325
Willis, J., & Willis, D. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford University Press.
Yulia, M. F., Sulistyo, G. H., & Cahyono, B. Y. (2020). Affective engagement in academic reading: What EFL student teachers reveal. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 9(3), 791-798. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v9i3.20635
Zare, J., & Derakhshan, A. (2025). Task engagement in second language acquisition: A questionnaire development and validation study. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 46(9), 2761-2777. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2024.2306166
Zhou, S. A., Hiver, P., & Zheng, Y. (2023). Modeling intra- and inter-individual changes in L2 classroom engagement. Applied Linguistics, 44(6), 1047–1076. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amac065