MEASURING ACADEMIC RESILIENCE IN EFL CONTEXTS: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF EXISTING SCALES AND A DECISION-MAKING FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCHERS
Main Article Content
Abstract
Academic resilience has gained increasing attention in second language (L2) education as learners face growing academic pressures and increasingly complex learning environments that demand sustained coping capacity. Yet existing measurement instruments remain conceptually varied and uneven in quality. This review synthesizes current L2 academic resilience scales and proposes a decision-making framework to support scale selection in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) research. Guided by four research questions, the review first identifies five major instruments used across secondary and tertiary EFL contexts. A comparative analysis of their theoretical foundations shows three dominant conceptualizations: trait-like personal qualities, dynamic adaptive processes, and ecological interactions between learners and their environments. The evaluation of psychometric evidence further reveals disparities in reliability, validity, and transparency of scale development, with some instruments demonstrating strong model fit and theoretical grounding while others offer limited methodological details. The contextual relevance of each scale is also examined, highlighting how factors such as learner proficiency, educational culture, and instructional setting influence applicability in diverse EFL ecologies. Building on these findings, a four-level decision-making framework is introduced to guide researchers in selecting instruments that are theoretically aligned, contextually appropriate, psychometrically sound, and practically feasible. The review concludes by calling for more cross-cultural validation, longitudinal designs, and development of resilience measures for underrepresented contexts to advance L2 resilience research.
Keywords
academic resilience, EFL learners, measurement scales, psychometric evaluation, decision-making framework
Article Details
References
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Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674028845
Cassidy, S. (2016). The Academic Resilience Scale (ARS-30): A new multidimensional construct measure. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1787. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01787
Chu, W., Yan, Y., Wang, H., & Liu, H. (2024). Visiting the studies of resilience in language learning: From concepts to themes. Acta Psychologica, 244, Article 104208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104208
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
Danes, S. M. (2014). Understanding and building resilience. University of Minnesota Extension. https://apps.extension.umn.edu/family/courses/staying-resilient-in-times-of-change-online/story_content/external_files/Understanding%20and%20Building%20Resilience%20FINAL.pdf
Dang, T. M. T., & Norris, L. (2024). Vietnamese culture of learning and its implications for English language education. HaUI Journal of Science and Technology, 60(10), 97–103. https://doi.org/10.57001/huih5804.2024.330
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Duan, S., Han, X., Li, X., & Liu, H. (2024). Unveiling student academic resilience in language learning: A structural equation modelling approach. BMC Psychology, 12(1), Article 177. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01665-1
Duran, R. L. (1983). Communicative adaptability: A measure of social communicative competence. Communication Quarterly, 31(4), 320–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463378309369521
Duong, M. T., & Nguyen, L. T. (2022). An e-portfolio: A promising tool for promoting learners’ autonomous learning competencies in an EFL speaking course. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 38(6), 148–159. https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4891
Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Martinussen, M. (2003). A new rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12(2), 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.143
Government of Vietnam. (2025). Scheme to make English the second language in schools, 2025–2035, with a vision to 2045. https://cdn.thuvienphapluat.vn/uploads/tintuc/2025/10/29/2371-ttg.signed.pdf
Garmezy, N. (1985). Stress-resistant children: The search for protective factors. In J. E. Stevenson (Ed.), Recent research in developmental psychopathology: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry book supplement (No. 4, pp. 213–233). Pergamon Press. https://books.google.com/books?id=RrJsAAAAMAAJ
Guo, N., & Li, R. (2022). Measuring Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language learners’ resilience: Development and validation of the foreign language learning resilience scale. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 1046340. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046340
Hedeshi, E., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2025). Exploring EFL learner resilience and examining its association with L2 buoyancy and language achievement. Applied Linguistics Review, 16(4), 1885–1905. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2024-0133
Kim, T.-Y., & Kim, Y.-K. (2016). The impact of resilience on L2 learners’ motivated behaviour and proficiency in L2 learning. Educational Studies, 43(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2016.1237866
Le, V. T., & Huynh, T. A. (2019). Learner autonomy: Practices used and challenges encountered by EFL teachers in fostering learner autonomy at tertiary level. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 35(4), 130–152. https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4402
Ladd, G. W., Kochenderfer, B. J., & Coleman, C. C. (1996). Friendship quality as a predictor of young children’s early school adjustment. Child Development, 67(3), 1103–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01785.x
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company. https://books.google.com/books?id=i-ySQQuUpr8C
Lereya, S. T., Humphrey, N., Patalay, P., Wolpert, M., Böhnke, J. R., Macdougall, A., & Deighton, J. (2016). The student resilience survey: Psychometric validation and associations with mental health. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10(1), Article 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-016-0132-5
Luthar, S. S. (2015). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (1st ed., pp. 739–795). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939406.ch20
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00164
Mansfield, C. F., Beltman, S., Broadley, T., & Weatherby-Fell, N. (2016). Building resilience in teacher education: An evidence-informed framework. Teaching and Teacher Education, 54, 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.11.016
Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2006). Academic resilience and its psychological and educational correlates: A construct validity approach. Psychology in the Schools, 43(3), 267–281. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20149
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12205
Nurumov, K., Hernández-Torrano, D., Ait Si Mhamed, A., & Ospanova, U. (2022). Measuring social desirability in collectivist countries: A psychometric study in a representative sample from Kazakhstan. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 822931. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.822931
Ngo, M. T., & Tran, L. T. (2023). Current English education in Vietnam: Policy, practices, and challenges. In T. L. H. Nghia, L. T. Tran, & M. T. Ngo (Eds.), English language education for graduate employability in Vietnam (pp. 49–69). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4338-8_3
Nguyen, H. T., & Khau, H. A. (2022). Culture expectations in foreign language classrooms – A case in Vietnam. Heliyon, 8(8), Article e10033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10033
Paré, G., Trudel, M.-C., Jaana, M., & Kitsiou, S. (2015). Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews. Information & Management, 52(2), 183–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008
Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2006). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide (1st ed.). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470754887
Phuong, H. Y., Tran, N. B. C., Nguyen, T. T. L., Lam, T. D., Bui, N. Q., & Le, T. T. (2025). From tests to tasks: How Vietnamese EFL teachers navigate washback through formative assessment practices. Language Testing in Asia, 15(1), Article 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-025-00392-7
Reivich, K., & Shatté, A. (2002). The resilience factor: 7 essential skills for overcoming life’s inevitable obstacles. Broadway Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=CdJTjKseD2cC
Sadownik, A. R. (2023). Bronfenbrenner: Ecology of human development in ecology of collaboration. In A. R. Sadownik & A. Višnjić Jevtić (Eds.), (Re)theorising more-than-parental involvement in early childhood education and care (Vol. 40, pp. 83–95). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38762-3_4
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press. https://books.google.com/books?id=3L0BCCoFMRgC
Shin, W. Y., Kim, M. G., & Kim, J. H. (2009). Developing measures of resilience for Korean adolescents and testing cross, convergent, and discriminant validity. Studies on Korean Youth, 20(4), 105–131. https://www.nypi.re.kr/repository/handle/2022.oak/1843
Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
Sriwichai, C. (2025). Exploring English learning resilience among Thai EFL learners: A structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 18(2), 974–1001. https://doi.org/10.70730/CXEI5151
Trinh, Q. L., Vo, T. T. T., & Le, C. T. (2025). An exploratory study on Vietnamese university students’ resilience in learning English as a foreign language. Frontiers in Education, 10, Article 1537638. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1537638
Ungar, M. (2006). Resilience across cultures. The British Journal of Social Work, 38(2), 218–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcl343
Ungar, M. (2012). Social ecologies and their contribution to resilience. In M. Ungar (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience (pp. 13–31). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0586-3_2
Van der Meer, C. A. I., Te Brake, H., Van der Aa, N., Dashtgard, P., Bakker, A., & Olff, M. (2018). Assessing psychological resilience: Development and psychometric properties of the English and Dutch version of the Resilience Evaluation Scale (RES). Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, Article 169. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00169
Vu, D. V., & Peters, E. (2021). Vocabulary in English language learning, teaching, and testing in Vietnam: A review. Education Sciences, 11(9), Article 563. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11090563
Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1(2), 165–178. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7850498/
Wicaksono, B. H., Ismail, S. M., Sultanova, S. A., & Abeba, D. (2023). I like language assessment: EFL learners’ voices about self-assessment, self-efficacy, grit tendencies, academic resilience, and academic demotivation in online instruction. Language Testing in Asia, 13(1), Article 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-023-00252-2
Wiemann, J. M. (1977). Explication and test of a model of communicative competence. Human Communication Research, 3(3), 195–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1977.tb00518.x
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
Zarrinabadi, N., Lou, N. M., & Ahmadi, A. (2022). Resilience in language classrooms: Exploring individual antecedents and consequences. System, 109, Article 102892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102892
Block, J., & Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 349–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.349
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674028845
Cassidy, S. (2016). The Academic Resilience Scale (ARS-30): A new multidimensional construct measure. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1787. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01787
Chu, W., Yan, Y., Wang, H., & Liu, H. (2024). Visiting the studies of resilience in language learning: From concepts to themes. Acta Psychologica, 244, Article 104208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104208
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
Danes, S. M. (2014). Understanding and building resilience. University of Minnesota Extension. https://apps.extension.umn.edu/family/courses/staying-resilient-in-times-of-change-online/story_content/external_files/Understanding%20and%20Building%20Resilience%20FINAL.pdf
Dang, T. M. T., & Norris, L. (2024). Vietnamese culture of learning and its implications for English language education. HaUI Journal of Science and Technology, 60(10), 97–103. https://doi.org/10.57001/huih5804.2024.330
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Duan, S., Han, X., Li, X., & Liu, H. (2024). Unveiling student academic resilience in language learning: A structural equation modelling approach. BMC Psychology, 12(1), Article 177. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01665-1
Duran, R. L. (1983). Communicative adaptability: A measure of social communicative competence. Communication Quarterly, 31(4), 320–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463378309369521
Duong, M. T., & Nguyen, L. T. (2022). An e-portfolio: A promising tool for promoting learners’ autonomous learning competencies in an EFL speaking course. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 38(6), 148–159. https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4891
Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Martinussen, M. (2003). A new rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12(2), 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.143
Government of Vietnam. (2025). Scheme to make English the second language in schools, 2025–2035, with a vision to 2045. https://cdn.thuvienphapluat.vn/uploads/tintuc/2025/10/29/2371-ttg.signed.pdf
Garmezy, N. (1985). Stress-resistant children: The search for protective factors. In J. E. Stevenson (Ed.), Recent research in developmental psychopathology: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry book supplement (No. 4, pp. 213–233). Pergamon Press. https://books.google.com/books?id=RrJsAAAAMAAJ
Guo, N., & Li, R. (2022). Measuring Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language learners’ resilience: Development and validation of the foreign language learning resilience scale. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 1046340. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046340
Hedeshi, E., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2025). Exploring EFL learner resilience and examining its association with L2 buoyancy and language achievement. Applied Linguistics Review, 16(4), 1885–1905. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2024-0133
Kim, T.-Y., & Kim, Y.-K. (2016). The impact of resilience on L2 learners’ motivated behaviour and proficiency in L2 learning. Educational Studies, 43(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2016.1237866
Le, V. T., & Huynh, T. A. (2019). Learner autonomy: Practices used and challenges encountered by EFL teachers in fostering learner autonomy at tertiary level. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 35(4), 130–152. https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4402
Ladd, G. W., Kochenderfer, B. J., & Coleman, C. C. (1996). Friendship quality as a predictor of young children’s early school adjustment. Child Development, 67(3), 1103–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01785.x
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company. https://books.google.com/books?id=i-ySQQuUpr8C
Lereya, S. T., Humphrey, N., Patalay, P., Wolpert, M., Böhnke, J. R., Macdougall, A., & Deighton, J. (2016). The student resilience survey: Psychometric validation and associations with mental health. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10(1), Article 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-016-0132-5
Luthar, S. S. (2015). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (1st ed., pp. 739–795). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939406.ch20
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00164
Mansfield, C. F., Beltman, S., Broadley, T., & Weatherby-Fell, N. (2016). Building resilience in teacher education: An evidence-informed framework. Teaching and Teacher Education, 54, 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.11.016
Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2006). Academic resilience and its psychological and educational correlates: A construct validity approach. Psychology in the Schools, 43(3), 267–281. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20149
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12205
Nurumov, K., Hernández-Torrano, D., Ait Si Mhamed, A., & Ospanova, U. (2022). Measuring social desirability in collectivist countries: A psychometric study in a representative sample from Kazakhstan. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 822931. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.822931
Ngo, M. T., & Tran, L. T. (2023). Current English education in Vietnam: Policy, practices, and challenges. In T. L. H. Nghia, L. T. Tran, & M. T. Ngo (Eds.), English language education for graduate employability in Vietnam (pp. 49–69). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4338-8_3
Nguyen, H. T., & Khau, H. A. (2022). Culture expectations in foreign language classrooms – A case in Vietnam. Heliyon, 8(8), Article e10033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10033
Paré, G., Trudel, M.-C., Jaana, M., & Kitsiou, S. (2015). Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews. Information & Management, 52(2), 183–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008
Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2006). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide (1st ed.). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470754887
Phuong, H. Y., Tran, N. B. C., Nguyen, T. T. L., Lam, T. D., Bui, N. Q., & Le, T. T. (2025). From tests to tasks: How Vietnamese EFL teachers navigate washback through formative assessment practices. Language Testing in Asia, 15(1), Article 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-025-00392-7
Reivich, K., & Shatté, A. (2002). The resilience factor: 7 essential skills for overcoming life’s inevitable obstacles. Broadway Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=CdJTjKseD2cC
Sadownik, A. R. (2023). Bronfenbrenner: Ecology of human development in ecology of collaboration. In A. R. Sadownik & A. Višnjić Jevtić (Eds.), (Re)theorising more-than-parental involvement in early childhood education and care (Vol. 40, pp. 83–95). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38762-3_4
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press. https://books.google.com/books?id=3L0BCCoFMRgC
Shin, W. Y., Kim, M. G., & Kim, J. H. (2009). Developing measures of resilience for Korean adolescents and testing cross, convergent, and discriminant validity. Studies on Korean Youth, 20(4), 105–131. https://www.nypi.re.kr/repository/handle/2022.oak/1843
Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
Sriwichai, C. (2025). Exploring English learning resilience among Thai EFL learners: A structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 18(2), 974–1001. https://doi.org/10.70730/CXEI5151
Trinh, Q. L., Vo, T. T. T., & Le, C. T. (2025). An exploratory study on Vietnamese university students’ resilience in learning English as a foreign language. Frontiers in Education, 10, Article 1537638. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1537638
Ungar, M. (2006). Resilience across cultures. The British Journal of Social Work, 38(2), 218–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcl343
Ungar, M. (2012). Social ecologies and their contribution to resilience. In M. Ungar (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience (pp. 13–31). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0586-3_2
Van der Meer, C. A. I., Te Brake, H., Van der Aa, N., Dashtgard, P., Bakker, A., & Olff, M. (2018). Assessing psychological resilience: Development and psychometric properties of the English and Dutch version of the Resilience Evaluation Scale (RES). Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, Article 169. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00169
Vu, D. V., & Peters, E. (2021). Vocabulary in English language learning, teaching, and testing in Vietnam: A review. Education Sciences, 11(9), Article 563. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11090563
Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1(2), 165–178. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7850498/
Wicaksono, B. H., Ismail, S. M., Sultanova, S. A., & Abeba, D. (2023). I like language assessment: EFL learners’ voices about self-assessment, self-efficacy, grit tendencies, academic resilience, and academic demotivation in online instruction. Language Testing in Asia, 13(1), Article 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-023-00252-2
Wiemann, J. M. (1977). Explication and test of a model of communicative competence. Human Communication Research, 3(3), 195–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1977.tb00518.x
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
Zarrinabadi, N., Lou, N. M., & Ahmadi, A. (2022). Resilience in language classrooms: Exploring individual antecedents and consequences. System, 109, Article 102892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102892