A PROPOSED INSTRUMENT TO INVESTIGATE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ CRITICAL READING STRATEGY USE IN ENGLISH READING COMPREHENSION
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study introduces the Survey of Critical Reading Strategies (SOCRS), a newly developed instrument designed to assess university students’ application of critical reading strategies in English reading comprehension. Conducted among EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students at a university in Vietnam, the study aimed to examine the reliability, validity, and practical relevance of the SOCRS, positioning it as a robust measure of critical reading strategy use. A total of 799 undergraduate students from diverse academic disciplines participated in the study. The reliability of SOCRS was confirmed through Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients, yielding high internal consistency for all three subscales (α=0.85, 0.89, and 0.83) and an overall reliability of α=0.91. The construct validity of SOCRS was established using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), which revealed a clear two-factor structure corresponding to the three stages of critical reading. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test (0.92) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p < 0.001) confirmed the adequacy of the sample and the suitability of the factor structure. Additionally, normality assessments using Skewness, Kurtosis, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, and Shapiro-Wilk tests supported the appropriateness of the data for statistical analysis. The findings establish SOCRS as a psychometrically robust, reliable, and valid instrument for assessing EFL university students’ critical reading strategies, offering a structured and multidimensional framework that captures students’ strategic engagement with texts throughout all phases of reading. These results highlight its potential not only for diagnostic purposes but also for guiding targeted pedagogical interventions. The study recommends incorporating SOCRS into curricula and further research to strengthen critical reading instruction and foster higher-order thinking skills among EFL learners.
Keywords
critical reading strategies, reading comprehension, SOCRS, reliability, validity
Article Details
References
Akyel, A. & Ercetin, G. (2009). Hypermedia reading strategies applied by advanced learners of English. System, (37)1, 136-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2008.05.002
Anuar, N., & Sidhu, G. K. (2017). Critical reading skills: A survey of postgraduate students’ perspective of critical reading. Pertanika Journals Social Sciences & Humanities, 25, 163–172. http://journals-jd.upm.edu.my/resources/files/Pertanika%20PAPERS/JSSH%20Vol.%2025%20(S)%20Feb.%202017/17%20JSSH(S)-0356-2016-4thProof.pdf
Axelrod, R. B., & Cooper, C. R. (2010). The St. Martin's guide to writing (9th ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. https://ia801609.us.archive.org/28/items/ApproachesAndMethodsInLanguageTeaching2ndEditionCambridgeLanguageTeachingLibrary_201610/%5BRise_B._Axelrod%2C_Charles_R._Cooper%5D_The_St._Marti%28BookFi%29.pdf
Bartlett, M.S. (1954). A Note on the Multiplying Factors for Various Chi Square Approximations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 16, 296-298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1954.tb00174.x
Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 463-494. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586295
Block, E. (1992). See How They Read: Comprehension Monitoring of L1 and L2 Readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 319-343. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587008
Carillo, E. C. (2019). Teaching readers in post-truth America. Utah State University Press.
Carrigus, A. (2002). Developing critical reading skills in ESL contexts. TESOL Quarterly, 36(2), 234-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v8-i5-79
Chou, P. T. M. (2011). The effects of vocabulary knowledge and background knowledge on reading comprehension of Taiwanese EFL students. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 8(1), 108–115. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285929273_The_effects_of_vocabulary_knowledge_and_background_knowledge_on_reading_comprehension_of_Taiwanese_EFL_students
Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4), 281–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040957
Ennis, R. H., & Weir, E. (1985). The Ennis–Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test. Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publications. https://evolkov.net/critic.think/tests/Ennis-Weir.Critic.Think.Essay.Test.pdf
Ericsson, K. A., and Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data (Rev Ed.). The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Fabrigar, L. R., & Wegener, D. T. (2012). Exploratory factor analysis. Oxford University Press. https://www.scribd.com/document/317855651/Exploratory-Factor-Analysis
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction-The Delphi report. Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242279575_Critical_Thinking_A_Statement_of_Expert_Consensus_for_Purposes_of_Educational_Assessment_and_Instruction
Field, A.P. (2018). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics (5th Edition). Sage, Newbury Park.
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference. 11.0 Update (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Ghasemi, A., & Zahediasl, S. (2012). Normality Tests for Statistical Analysis: A Guide for Non-Statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10, 486-489. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.3505
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
Halpern, D. F. (2014). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (5th ed.). Psychology Press.
Hyönä, J. (2010). The use of eye movements in the study of multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 20(2), 172–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.013
Kaiser, H.F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575
Kurland, D. J. (2000). Critical Thinking vs Critical Reading. www.crticalreading.com.pdf
Kurt Taşpınar, H., & Çubukçu, F. (2020). The impact of critical literacy instruction on adult EFL learners’ reading comprehension. Language Teaching and Educational Research (LATER), 3(1), 34-55. https://doi.org/10.35207/later.736070
Le, H. V., Chong, S. L., & Wan, R. (2021). A conceptual paper on the impact of culture on critical reading skills of engineering students in Asian higher education context. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Education Technology and Computers (pp. 334-339). https://doi.org/10.1145/3498765.3498817
Le, H. V., Chong, S. L., & Wan, R. (2022). Critical reading in higher education: A systematic review. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 44, 101028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101028
Le, H. V., Chong, S. L., & Wan, R. (2023). An investigation into the critical reading skills of engineering students at two private universities in Malaysia and Vietnam. KNE Social Sciences, 8(20),614-632. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v8i20.14628
Le, H. V., Nguyen, T. A. D., Le, D. H. N., Nguyen, P. U., & Nguyen, T. T. A. (2024). Unveiling critical reading strategies and challenges: A mixed-methods study among English major students in a Vietnamese higher education institution. Cogent Education, 11(1), 2326732. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2326732
LeMaster, J. (2011). Critical reading: Deep reading strategies for expository texts (p. 143). AVID Press.
Linkon, S. (2008). Critical Reading Strategies. https://digital.maag.ysu.edu/xmlui/handle/1989/136
McWhorter, K.T. (1992). Active reading skills: reading and critical thinking in college. Boston: Longman.
Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons' responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
Miellet, S., Vizioli, L., He, L., Zhou, X., & Caldara, R. (2013). Mapping face recognition information use across cultures. Frontiers in Psychology, 34(4). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00034
Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing students’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.2.249
Mokhtari, K., & Sheorey, R. (2002). Measuring ESL students’ awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Developmental Education, 25(3), 2–10. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kouider-Mokhtari/publication/285641803_Measuring_ESL_students%27_awareness_of_reading_strategies/links/5666234608ae418a786f3da5/Measuring-ESL-students-awareness-of-reading-strategies.pdf
Nasrollahi, M. A., Krishnasamy, P. K. N., & Noor, N. M. (2015a). Identifying the critical reading strategies employed by Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Social Science and Education, 5(2), 360-373. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED609812.pdf
Nasrollahi, M. A., Krishnasamy, P. K. N., & Noor, N. M. (2015b). Process of implementing critical reading strategies in an Iranian EFL classroom: An action research. International Education Studies, 8(1), 9-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n1p9
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Ogle. D. M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading Teacher, 39(6), 564-570. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.39.6.11
Paul, R & Elder, L. (2008). Critical Thinking: The Art of Socratic Questioning, Part III. Journal of Developmental Education, 31(3), 34-35. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ832681
Pressley, M. & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal Protocols of Reading: The Nature of Constructively Responsive Reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Pirozzi, R. (2003). Critical reading, critical thinking (2nd ed.). Longman.
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(8), 1457–1506. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210902816461
Rohmah, G. N. (2018). Critical reading: students’ problems, strategies and reflections. J-ELLiT (Journal of English Language Literature and Teaching), 2(1), 21-26. https://journal2.um.ac.id/index.php/jellit/article/view/6082
Şahin, H., & Han, T. (2020). EFL teachers’ attitude towards 21st-century skills: A mixed-methods study. The Reading Matrix, 20(2), 167-181. https://readingmatrix.com/files/23-3jspj75s.pdf
Sheorey, R., & Mokhtari, K. (2001). Differences in the Cognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies among Native and Non-Native Readers. System, 29(4), 431-449. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(01)00039-2
Talebi, M., & Marzban, A. (2015). The effect of teaching critical reading strategies on EFL learners' vocabulary retention. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(3), 572-580. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0503.17
Tovani, C. (2000). I read it, but I don’t get it: Comprehension strategies for adolescent readers. Stenhouse Pub.
Wallace, M., & Wray, A. (2011). Scholarly reading as a model for scholarly writing. In Rocco, T. S., & Hatcher, T. (Eds.), The handbook of scholarly writing and publishing (pp. 44-61). Jossey-Bass.
Wang, C., & Gierl, M. J. (2011). Using the attribute hierarchy method to make diagnostic inferences about examinees’ cognitive skills in critical reading. Journal of Educational Measurement, 48(2), 165-187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.2011.00142.x
Watson, G., & Glaser, E. (2002). Critical Thinking Appraisal-UK Edition. Ingris: Pearson Assessment.
Wexler, J., Swanson, E., Kurz, L. A., Shelton, A., & Vaughn, S. (2020). Enhancing reading comprehension in middle school classrooms using a critical reading routine. Intervention in School and Clinic, 55(4), 203-213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451219855738
Zhang, K., & Aslan, A. B. (2021). AI Technologies for Education: Recent Research & Future Directions. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, Article ID: 100025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100025
Zhang, L. J., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior high school students’ cognitive and metacognitive strategy use in reading comprehension. Reading in a foreign language, 21(1), 37-59. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237309222_Chinese_Senior_High_School_EFL_Students'_Metacognitive_Awareness_and_Reading-Strategy_Use
Anuar, N., & Sidhu, G. K. (2017). Critical reading skills: A survey of postgraduate students’ perspective of critical reading. Pertanika Journals Social Sciences & Humanities, 25, 163–172. http://journals-jd.upm.edu.my/resources/files/Pertanika%20PAPERS/JSSH%20Vol.%2025%20(S)%20Feb.%202017/17%20JSSH(S)-0356-2016-4thProof.pdf
Axelrod, R. B., & Cooper, C. R. (2010). The St. Martin's guide to writing (9th ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. https://ia801609.us.archive.org/28/items/ApproachesAndMethodsInLanguageTeaching2ndEditionCambridgeLanguageTeachingLibrary_201610/%5BRise_B._Axelrod%2C_Charles_R._Cooper%5D_The_St._Marti%28BookFi%29.pdf
Bartlett, M.S. (1954). A Note on the Multiplying Factors for Various Chi Square Approximations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 16, 296-298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1954.tb00174.x
Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 463-494. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586295
Block, E. (1992). See How They Read: Comprehension Monitoring of L1 and L2 Readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 319-343. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587008
Carillo, E. C. (2019). Teaching readers in post-truth America. Utah State University Press.
Carrigus, A. (2002). Developing critical reading skills in ESL contexts. TESOL Quarterly, 36(2), 234-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v8-i5-79
Chou, P. T. M. (2011). The effects of vocabulary knowledge and background knowledge on reading comprehension of Taiwanese EFL students. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 8(1), 108–115. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285929273_The_effects_of_vocabulary_knowledge_and_background_knowledge_on_reading_comprehension_of_Taiwanese_EFL_students
Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4), 281–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040957
Ennis, R. H., & Weir, E. (1985). The Ennis–Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test. Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publications. https://evolkov.net/critic.think/tests/Ennis-Weir.Critic.Think.Essay.Test.pdf
Ericsson, K. A., and Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data (Rev Ed.). The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Fabrigar, L. R., & Wegener, D. T. (2012). Exploratory factor analysis. Oxford University Press. https://www.scribd.com/document/317855651/Exploratory-Factor-Analysis
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction-The Delphi report. Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242279575_Critical_Thinking_A_Statement_of_Expert_Consensus_for_Purposes_of_Educational_Assessment_and_Instruction
Field, A.P. (2018). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics (5th Edition). Sage, Newbury Park.
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference. 11.0 Update (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Ghasemi, A., & Zahediasl, S. (2012). Normality Tests for Statistical Analysis: A Guide for Non-Statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10, 486-489. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.3505
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
Halpern, D. F. (2014). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (5th ed.). Psychology Press.
Hyönä, J. (2010). The use of eye movements in the study of multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 20(2), 172–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.013
Kaiser, H.F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575
Kurland, D. J. (2000). Critical Thinking vs Critical Reading. www.crticalreading.com.pdf
Kurt Taşpınar, H., & Çubukçu, F. (2020). The impact of critical literacy instruction on adult EFL learners’ reading comprehension. Language Teaching and Educational Research (LATER), 3(1), 34-55. https://doi.org/10.35207/later.736070
Le, H. V., Chong, S. L., & Wan, R. (2021). A conceptual paper on the impact of culture on critical reading skills of engineering students in Asian higher education context. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Education Technology and Computers (pp. 334-339). https://doi.org/10.1145/3498765.3498817
Le, H. V., Chong, S. L., & Wan, R. (2022). Critical reading in higher education: A systematic review. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 44, 101028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101028
Le, H. V., Chong, S. L., & Wan, R. (2023). An investigation into the critical reading skills of engineering students at two private universities in Malaysia and Vietnam. KNE Social Sciences, 8(20),614-632. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v8i20.14628
Le, H. V., Nguyen, T. A. D., Le, D. H. N., Nguyen, P. U., & Nguyen, T. T. A. (2024). Unveiling critical reading strategies and challenges: A mixed-methods study among English major students in a Vietnamese higher education institution. Cogent Education, 11(1), 2326732. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2326732
LeMaster, J. (2011). Critical reading: Deep reading strategies for expository texts (p. 143). AVID Press.
Linkon, S. (2008). Critical Reading Strategies. https://digital.maag.ysu.edu/xmlui/handle/1989/136
McWhorter, K.T. (1992). Active reading skills: reading and critical thinking in college. Boston: Longman.
Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons' responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
Miellet, S., Vizioli, L., He, L., Zhou, X., & Caldara, R. (2013). Mapping face recognition information use across cultures. Frontiers in Psychology, 34(4). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00034
Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing students’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.2.249
Mokhtari, K., & Sheorey, R. (2002). Measuring ESL students’ awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Developmental Education, 25(3), 2–10. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kouider-Mokhtari/publication/285641803_Measuring_ESL_students%27_awareness_of_reading_strategies/links/5666234608ae418a786f3da5/Measuring-ESL-students-awareness-of-reading-strategies.pdf
Nasrollahi, M. A., Krishnasamy, P. K. N., & Noor, N. M. (2015a). Identifying the critical reading strategies employed by Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Social Science and Education, 5(2), 360-373. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED609812.pdf
Nasrollahi, M. A., Krishnasamy, P. K. N., & Noor, N. M. (2015b). Process of implementing critical reading strategies in an Iranian EFL classroom: An action research. International Education Studies, 8(1), 9-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n1p9
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Ogle. D. M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading Teacher, 39(6), 564-570. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.39.6.11
Paul, R & Elder, L. (2008). Critical Thinking: The Art of Socratic Questioning, Part III. Journal of Developmental Education, 31(3), 34-35. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ832681
Pressley, M. & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal Protocols of Reading: The Nature of Constructively Responsive Reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Pirozzi, R. (2003). Critical reading, critical thinking (2nd ed.). Longman.
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(8), 1457–1506. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210902816461
Rohmah, G. N. (2018). Critical reading: students’ problems, strategies and reflections. J-ELLiT (Journal of English Language Literature and Teaching), 2(1), 21-26. https://journal2.um.ac.id/index.php/jellit/article/view/6082
Şahin, H., & Han, T. (2020). EFL teachers’ attitude towards 21st-century skills: A mixed-methods study. The Reading Matrix, 20(2), 167-181. https://readingmatrix.com/files/23-3jspj75s.pdf
Sheorey, R., & Mokhtari, K. (2001). Differences in the Cognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies among Native and Non-Native Readers. System, 29(4), 431-449. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(01)00039-2
Talebi, M., & Marzban, A. (2015). The effect of teaching critical reading strategies on EFL learners' vocabulary retention. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(3), 572-580. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0503.17
Tovani, C. (2000). I read it, but I don’t get it: Comprehension strategies for adolescent readers. Stenhouse Pub.
Wallace, M., & Wray, A. (2011). Scholarly reading as a model for scholarly writing. In Rocco, T. S., & Hatcher, T. (Eds.), The handbook of scholarly writing and publishing (pp. 44-61). Jossey-Bass.
Wang, C., & Gierl, M. J. (2011). Using the attribute hierarchy method to make diagnostic inferences about examinees’ cognitive skills in critical reading. Journal of Educational Measurement, 48(2), 165-187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.2011.00142.x
Watson, G., & Glaser, E. (2002). Critical Thinking Appraisal-UK Edition. Ingris: Pearson Assessment.
Wexler, J., Swanson, E., Kurz, L. A., Shelton, A., & Vaughn, S. (2020). Enhancing reading comprehension in middle school classrooms using a critical reading routine. Intervention in School and Clinic, 55(4), 203-213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451219855738
Zhang, K., & Aslan, A. B. (2021). AI Technologies for Education: Recent Research & Future Directions. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, Article ID: 100025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100025
Zhang, L. J., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior high school students’ cognitive and metacognitive strategy use in reading comprehension. Reading in a foreign language, 21(1), 37-59. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237309222_Chinese_Senior_High_School_EFL_Students'_Metacognitive_Awareness_and_Reading-Strategy_Use