METHODS FOR AMASSING DATA IN CROSS-CULTURAL PRAGMATICS RESEARCH
Main Article Content
Abstract
This article discusses prevalent and up-to-date data-amassing techniques for cross-cultural pragmatics studies. Based on the distinctive features of data types, the commonly used methods are outlined with their pluses and minuses, along with the author’s remarks and recommendations on how to employ them for fulfilling research purposes. Additionally, the paper suggests that an integration of the data-gathering methods proves to be of great value for pragmatics studies in general and cross-cultural pragmatics studies in particular, contributing to ensuring the validity and reliability of these kinds of research.
Article Details
Keywords
cross-cultural research, data, data collection, methodology, pragmatics
References
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Austin, J. L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Oxford University Press.
Barron, A. (2003). Acquisition in interlanguage pragmatics: Learning how to do things with words in a study abroad context (Vol. 108). John Benjamins Publishing.
Bednarek, M. (2011). Approaching the data of pragmatics. In W. Bublitz & N. R. Norrick (Eds.), Foundations of Pragmatics (pp. 537–560). De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214260.537
Billmyer, K., & Varghese, M. (2000). Investigating instrument-based pragmatic variability: Effects of enhancing discourse completion tests. Applied Linguistics, 21(4), 517-522. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/21.4.517
Blum-Kulka, S. (1982). Learning how to say what you mean in a second language: A cross-cultural study of Hebrew and English. Applied Linguistics, 3(1), 29-59.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1992). The metapragmatics of politeness in Israeli society. In R. J. Watts, S. Ide, & K. Ehlich (Eds.), Politeness in Language: Studies in its History, Theory and Practice (pp. 255-280). De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/doi:10.1515/9783110886542-013
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Investigating Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: An Introductory Overview. In Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies (Vol. 31, pp. 1-34).
Boxer, D., & Cohen, A. D. (2004). Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning (Vol. 8). Multilingual Matters.
Brown, J. D. (2001). Pragmatics tests: Different purposes, different tests. In G. Kasper & K. R. Rose (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp. 301–326). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524797.020
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge University Press.
Chafe, W. L. (1994). Discourse, consciousness, and time: The flow and displacement of conscious experience in speaking and writing. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.
Chang, W.-L. M., & Haugh, M. (2011). Evaluations of im/politeness of an intercultural apology. Intercultural Pragmatics, 8(3), 411–442. https://doi.org/10.1515/iprg.2011.019
Clark, H. H., & Bangerter, A. (2004). Changing Ideas about Reference. In I. A. Noveck & D. Sperber (Eds.), Experimental Pragmatics (pp. 25–49). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230524125_2
Collins, C., Guitard, S., & Wood, J. (2009). Imposters: An online survey of grammaticality judgments. NYU Working Papers in Linguistics, 2, 1–22.
Crookall, D., & Saunders, D. (1989). Communication and simulation: From two fields to one theme (Vol. 4). Multilingual matters.
Demeter, G. (2007). Symposium article: Role-plays as a data collection method for research on apology speech acts. Simulation & Gaming, 38(1), 83–90.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford University Press.
Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. (2013). Strategies, modification and perspective in native speakers’ requests: A comparison of WDCT and naturally occurring requests. Journal of Pragmatics, 53, 21–38.
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2018). Role plays. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (Vol. 10, pp. 305–331). Walter de Gruyter.
Fillmore, C. J. (1992). “Corpus linguistics” or “Computer-aided armchair linguistics”. In J. Svartvik (Ed.), Directions in Corpus Linguistics: Proceedings of Nobel Symposium 82 Stockholm, 4-8 August 1991 (pp. 35-60). Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110867275.35
Fukushima, S. (2011). A cross-generational and cross-cultural study on demonstration of attentiveness. Pragmatics, 21(4), 549-571. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.21.4.03fuk
Fukushima, S. (2013). Evaluation of (im)politeness: A comparative study among Japanese students, Japanese parents and American students on evaluation of attentiveness. Pragmatics, 23(2), 275-299. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.23.2.04fuk
Golato, A. (2003). Studying Compliment Responses: A Comparison of DCTs and Recordings of Naturally Occurring Talk. Applied Linguistics, 24(1), 90-121. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/24.1.90
Grice, H. Paul. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics 3: Speech acts (pp. 41–58). New York: Academic Press. http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/logic_and_conversation.pdf
Haugh, M., & Chang, W.-L. M. (2019). “The apology seemed (in) sincere”: Variability in perceptions of (im) politeness. Journal of Pragmatics, 142, 207-222.
Hodeib, C. (2021). An overview of research methods in speech acts and politeness. The case for triangulation. ARGUMENTUM, 17, 108–124. https://doi.org/10.34103/argumentum/2021/7
Holmes, J. (1986). Compliments and compliment responses in New Zealand English. Anthropological Linguistics, 485–508.
House, J., & Kádár, D. Z. (2021). Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108954587.006
House, J., & Kádár, D. Z. (2022). Research Report: Cross-cultural Pragmatics. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 14(2), 151-156. https://doi.org/10.2478/ausp-2022-0021
Jucker, A. H. (2009). Speech act research between armchair, field and laboratory: The case of compliments. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(8), 1611–1635. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PRAGMA.2009.02.004
Jucker, A. H. (2012). Pragmatics in the history of linguistic thought. In K. Allen & K. M. Jaszczolt (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Pragmatics (pp. 495–512). Cambridge University Press.
Jucker, A. H. (2018). Data in Pragmatic Research. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (pp. 3–36). De Gruyter Mouton.
Kasper, G. (1999). Data collection in pragmatics research. University of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL, 18(1), 71-107. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/40802
Kasper, G. (2008). Data Collection in Pragmatics Research. In H. Spencer-Oatey (Ed.), Culturally Speaking: Culture, Communication and Politeness Theory (pp. 279–303). Continuum.
Kasper, G., & Dahl, M. (1991). Research Methods in Interlanguage Pragmatics. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13(2), 215–247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100009955
Kirner-Ludwig, M. (2022). Data collection methods applied in studies in the journal Intercultural Pragmatics (2004-2020): A scientometric survey and mixed corpus study. Intercultural Pragmatics, 19(4), 459–487. https://doi.org/10.1515/ip-2022-4002
Labov, W. (1973). Sociolinguistic Patterns (Issue 4). University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lakoff, R. T. (1973). The logic of politeness; or, minding your p’s and q’s. In C. Corum, T. Cedric Smith-Stark, & A. Weiser (Eds.), Papers from the 9th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society (pp. 292-305). Chicago Linguistic Society.
Leech, G. (2014). The Pragmatics of Politeness. Oxford University Press.
Leech, G. N. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. Longman.
Levenston, E. A., & Blum, S. (1978). Discourse-Completion as a Technique for Studying Lexical Features of Interlanguage. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 15, 13–21.
Markham, A. N. (2004). Internet Communication as a Tool for Qualitative Research. In Silverman D. (Ed.), Qualitative Research: Theory, Method and Practice (pp. 95–124). Sage.
Ogiermann, E. (2018). Discourse Completion Tasks. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (pp. 229–256). De Gruyter Mouton.
O’Keeffe, A., Clancy, B., & Adolphs, S. (2020). Introducing Pragmatics in Use (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Rolland, L., Dewaele, J.-M., & Costa, B. (2020). Planning and Conducting Ethical Interviews: Power, Language and Emotions. In The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics (pp. 279-289). Routledge.
Rosendale, D. (1989). Role-play as a data-generation method. Simulation & Games, 20(4), 487-492.
Röver, C. (2005). Testing ESL Pragmatics: Development and Validation of a Web-Based Assessment Battery. Peter Lang Verlag.
Schneider, K. P. (2011). Imagining conversation: How people think people do things with words. Sociolinguistic Studies, 5(1), 15-36. https://doi.org/10.1558/sols.v5i1.15
Schneider, K. P. (2018). Methods and ethics of data collection. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (pp. 37-94). De Gruyter Mouton. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:64874874
Schütze, C. T. (2016). The Empirical Base of Linguistics: Grammaticality Judgments and Linguistic Methodology. Language Science Press.
Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1996). Relevance: Communication and Cognition (2nd edition). Blackwell.
Sweeney, E., & Hua, Z. (2016). Discourse Completion Tasks. In Z. Hua (Ed.), Research Methods in Intercultural Communication: A Practical Guide (pp. 212-232). Wiley Blackwell.
Watts, R. J. (2010). Linguistic politeness theory and its aftermath: Recent research trails. In M. Locher & S. Graham (Eds.), Interpersonal Pragmatics (pp. 43-70). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214338.1.43
Yamashita, S. O. (1996). Six measures of JSL pragmatics. University of Hawaii Press.
Yuan, Y. (2001). An inquiry into empirical pragmatics data-gathering methods: Written DCTs, oral DCTs, field notes, and natural conversations. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(2), 271-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(00)00031-X
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Oxford University Press.
Barron, A. (2003). Acquisition in interlanguage pragmatics: Learning how to do things with words in a study abroad context (Vol. 108). John Benjamins Publishing.
Bednarek, M. (2011). Approaching the data of pragmatics. In W. Bublitz & N. R. Norrick (Eds.), Foundations of Pragmatics (pp. 537–560). De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214260.537
Billmyer, K., & Varghese, M. (2000). Investigating instrument-based pragmatic variability: Effects of enhancing discourse completion tests. Applied Linguistics, 21(4), 517-522. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/21.4.517
Blum-Kulka, S. (1982). Learning how to say what you mean in a second language: A cross-cultural study of Hebrew and English. Applied Linguistics, 3(1), 29-59.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1992). The metapragmatics of politeness in Israeli society. In R. J. Watts, S. Ide, & K. Ehlich (Eds.), Politeness in Language: Studies in its History, Theory and Practice (pp. 255-280). De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/doi:10.1515/9783110886542-013
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Investigating Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: An Introductory Overview. In Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies (Vol. 31, pp. 1-34).
Boxer, D., & Cohen, A. D. (2004). Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning (Vol. 8). Multilingual Matters.
Brown, J. D. (2001). Pragmatics tests: Different purposes, different tests. In G. Kasper & K. R. Rose (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp. 301–326). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524797.020
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge University Press.
Chafe, W. L. (1994). Discourse, consciousness, and time: The flow and displacement of conscious experience in speaking and writing. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.
Chang, W.-L. M., & Haugh, M. (2011). Evaluations of im/politeness of an intercultural apology. Intercultural Pragmatics, 8(3), 411–442. https://doi.org/10.1515/iprg.2011.019
Clark, H. H., & Bangerter, A. (2004). Changing Ideas about Reference. In I. A. Noveck & D. Sperber (Eds.), Experimental Pragmatics (pp. 25–49). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230524125_2
Collins, C., Guitard, S., & Wood, J. (2009). Imposters: An online survey of grammaticality judgments. NYU Working Papers in Linguistics, 2, 1–22.
Crookall, D., & Saunders, D. (1989). Communication and simulation: From two fields to one theme (Vol. 4). Multilingual matters.
Demeter, G. (2007). Symposium article: Role-plays as a data collection method for research on apology speech acts. Simulation & Gaming, 38(1), 83–90.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford University Press.
Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. (2013). Strategies, modification and perspective in native speakers’ requests: A comparison of WDCT and naturally occurring requests. Journal of Pragmatics, 53, 21–38.
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2018). Role plays. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (Vol. 10, pp. 305–331). Walter de Gruyter.
Fillmore, C. J. (1992). “Corpus linguistics” or “Computer-aided armchair linguistics”. In J. Svartvik (Ed.), Directions in Corpus Linguistics: Proceedings of Nobel Symposium 82 Stockholm, 4-8 August 1991 (pp. 35-60). Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110867275.35
Fukushima, S. (2011). A cross-generational and cross-cultural study on demonstration of attentiveness. Pragmatics, 21(4), 549-571. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.21.4.03fuk
Fukushima, S. (2013). Evaluation of (im)politeness: A comparative study among Japanese students, Japanese parents and American students on evaluation of attentiveness. Pragmatics, 23(2), 275-299. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.23.2.04fuk
Golato, A. (2003). Studying Compliment Responses: A Comparison of DCTs and Recordings of Naturally Occurring Talk. Applied Linguistics, 24(1), 90-121. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/24.1.90
Grice, H. Paul. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics 3: Speech acts (pp. 41–58). New York: Academic Press. http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/logic_and_conversation.pdf
Haugh, M., & Chang, W.-L. M. (2019). “The apology seemed (in) sincere”: Variability in perceptions of (im) politeness. Journal of Pragmatics, 142, 207-222.
Hodeib, C. (2021). An overview of research methods in speech acts and politeness. The case for triangulation. ARGUMENTUM, 17, 108–124. https://doi.org/10.34103/argumentum/2021/7
Holmes, J. (1986). Compliments and compliment responses in New Zealand English. Anthropological Linguistics, 485–508.
House, J., & Kádár, D. Z. (2021). Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108954587.006
House, J., & Kádár, D. Z. (2022). Research Report: Cross-cultural Pragmatics. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 14(2), 151-156. https://doi.org/10.2478/ausp-2022-0021
Jucker, A. H. (2009). Speech act research between armchair, field and laboratory: The case of compliments. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(8), 1611–1635. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PRAGMA.2009.02.004
Jucker, A. H. (2012). Pragmatics in the history of linguistic thought. In K. Allen & K. M. Jaszczolt (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Pragmatics (pp. 495–512). Cambridge University Press.
Jucker, A. H. (2018). Data in Pragmatic Research. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (pp. 3–36). De Gruyter Mouton.
Kasper, G. (1999). Data collection in pragmatics research. University of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL, 18(1), 71-107. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/40802
Kasper, G. (2008). Data Collection in Pragmatics Research. In H. Spencer-Oatey (Ed.), Culturally Speaking: Culture, Communication and Politeness Theory (pp. 279–303). Continuum.
Kasper, G., & Dahl, M. (1991). Research Methods in Interlanguage Pragmatics. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13(2), 215–247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100009955
Kirner-Ludwig, M. (2022). Data collection methods applied in studies in the journal Intercultural Pragmatics (2004-2020): A scientometric survey and mixed corpus study. Intercultural Pragmatics, 19(4), 459–487. https://doi.org/10.1515/ip-2022-4002
Labov, W. (1973). Sociolinguistic Patterns (Issue 4). University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lakoff, R. T. (1973). The logic of politeness; or, minding your p’s and q’s. In C. Corum, T. Cedric Smith-Stark, & A. Weiser (Eds.), Papers from the 9th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society (pp. 292-305). Chicago Linguistic Society.
Leech, G. (2014). The Pragmatics of Politeness. Oxford University Press.
Leech, G. N. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. Longman.
Levenston, E. A., & Blum, S. (1978). Discourse-Completion as a Technique for Studying Lexical Features of Interlanguage. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 15, 13–21.
Markham, A. N. (2004). Internet Communication as a Tool for Qualitative Research. In Silverman D. (Ed.), Qualitative Research: Theory, Method and Practice (pp. 95–124). Sage.
Ogiermann, E. (2018). Discourse Completion Tasks. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (pp. 229–256). De Gruyter Mouton.
O’Keeffe, A., Clancy, B., & Adolphs, S. (2020). Introducing Pragmatics in Use (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Rolland, L., Dewaele, J.-M., & Costa, B. (2020). Planning and Conducting Ethical Interviews: Power, Language and Emotions. In The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics (pp. 279-289). Routledge.
Rosendale, D. (1989). Role-play as a data-generation method. Simulation & Games, 20(4), 487-492.
Röver, C. (2005). Testing ESL Pragmatics: Development and Validation of a Web-Based Assessment Battery. Peter Lang Verlag.
Schneider, K. P. (2011). Imagining conversation: How people think people do things with words. Sociolinguistic Studies, 5(1), 15-36. https://doi.org/10.1558/sols.v5i1.15
Schneider, K. P. (2018). Methods and ethics of data collection. In A. H. Jucker, K. P. Schneider, & W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in Pragmatics (pp. 37-94). De Gruyter Mouton. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:64874874
Schütze, C. T. (2016). The Empirical Base of Linguistics: Grammaticality Judgments and Linguistic Methodology. Language Science Press.
Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1996). Relevance: Communication and Cognition (2nd edition). Blackwell.
Sweeney, E., & Hua, Z. (2016). Discourse Completion Tasks. In Z. Hua (Ed.), Research Methods in Intercultural Communication: A Practical Guide (pp. 212-232). Wiley Blackwell.
Watts, R. J. (2010). Linguistic politeness theory and its aftermath: Recent research trails. In M. Locher & S. Graham (Eds.), Interpersonal Pragmatics (pp. 43-70). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214338.1.43
Yamashita, S. O. (1996). Six measures of JSL pragmatics. University of Hawaii Press.
Yuan, Y. (2001). An inquiry into empirical pragmatics data-gathering methods: Written DCTs, oral DCTs, field notes, and natural conversations. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(2), 271-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(00)00031-X